Chapter 10- principles
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key questions BALANCE • Which form of balance is most appropriate to the ideas that you want to express? • What happens when an unexpected part of the design plays the dominant role? • How can space and lighting affect compositional balance?
balance, symmetrical balance, radial symmetry, Asymmetrical balance, subordinate, dominant
BALANCE The distribution of weight or force among visual units creates _________. Like physical balance, visual balance requires equilibrium in size, visual weight, and force. An evenly balanced composition such as The Two Plateaus (10.14) tends to be stable. This is a peaceful space for us to enter. By combining balance with the illusion of movement, Claes Oldenburg and Coosje van Bruggen created a much more dynamic sculpture in figure 10.15. Nearly 19 feet tall, The Typewriter Eraser seems to whirl forward like a crazed unicycle that is on the verge of collapse. There are three major types of balance. In __________ _________, forms are mirrored on either side of a central axis. The resulting artwork generally is physically and visually stable. The central face in figure 10.16A is an example of symmetrical balance. With _________ ________, design elements extend out from a central point, like the spokes of a wheel. Radiating in all directions while remaining anchored at the center, this type of balance tends to generate considerable energy while retaining unity. As shown in diagram 10.16B, figure 10.16A combines symmetrical balance (in the central face) and radial balance (in the outer ring). _________ __________creates equilibrium among visual elements that do not mirror each other on either side of an axis. As The Typewriter Eraser shows, the resulting design may be very dynamic. We can use many strategies to create asymmetrical balance: • Place a large form close to the fulcrum, and a small form farther away. Just as a child at the end of a seesaw can balance an adult near the center, so large and small forms can be balanced in a design (10.17A). • Multiple small forms can balance a single large form (10.17B). • A small, solid form can balance a large, open form. The square's solidity and stability give it visual weight as well as physical weight (10.17C). We construct most artworks from multiple parts. Size variations among the parts affect both the physical balance and the expressive impact. One or more _____________, or secondary, forms often balance a __________, or primary, form. For example, in Theodore Gall's Plaza Facets (10.18), the column and fragmentary heads on the right balance the large head on the left. The seven smaller figures create yet a third compositional level. Using these compositional hierarchies, artists and designers can create unified designs from distinctly individual parts. Two contrasting interpretations of a single figure further demonstrate the expressive power of balance. Figures 10.19 and 10.20 show St. Bruno, an eleventh-century Catholic saint. His followers, known as the Carthusian Order, lived in caves and devoted their time to manuscript transcription, meditation, and prayer. The first statue, completed by Michel-Ange Slodtz in 1744, dramatizes a pivotal moment in Bruno's life. Preferring meditation in a monastery to the power and prestige of public life, Bruno rejected promotion to the office of bishop. Slodtz used asymmetrical balance to express this dramatic moment. The small bishop's hat, offered by the angel in the lower-right corner, is the focal point of the entire sculpture. The much larger figure of St. Bruno recoils when confronted by this symbol of authority. As a result, the small hat is equal in compositional weight to the frightened monk The second sculpture depicts a different interpretation of St. Bruno's life. Completed by Jean-Antoine Houdon in 1766, it emphasizes the Carthusian Order and its founder's contemplative nature. Using symmetrical balance, Houdon presents a dignified, introspective man. If we divide the figure in half from top to bottom, the two sides basically mirror each other. This saint is a philosopher, very much at peace with his choices. Just as asymmetrical balance is appropriate for the dramatic moment represented by Slodtz, so symmetrical balance is ideal for the serenity shown by Houdon. Exaggerated weight or buoyancy can shift the balance in an artwork and expand meaning. In Chuichi Fujii's Untitled (10.21), the weight of a second log seems to have crushed a cedar log. At the other extreme, Todd Slaughter's Mortarboard (10.22) seems to fly through the air with exuberant energy. This effect is especially noticeable at night. This artwork derives its power from the denial of gravity, while figure 10.21 derives its power from exaggerated gravity.
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CONTRAST • Consider all of the contrasting forces that you might use in your composition. How can contrast enhance your idea? • How many contrasting forces can you use effectively in a single artwork? Two? Three? Six? • What would happen to your composition if you dramatically increased the amount of contrast?
Contrast
Contrast ___________ is created when two or more forces operate in opposition.
Emphasis, focal point
EMPHASIS ________ gives particular prominence to part of a design. A ______ ________ is a compositional device used to create emphasis. For example, the bishop's hat in Slodtz's version of St. Bruno (figure 10.19, page 226) is the composition's focal point. Both emphasis and focal point can attract attention and increase visual and conceptual impact.
anomaly
Emphasis by Isolation Any ________, or break from the norm, can emphasize an idea. Because we seek to connect the verbal and visual information that we receive, a mismatched word or an isolated object immediately attracts attention. Do Ho Suh's Fallen Star (10.35) is a three-quarter sized cottage based on an actual house in Providence, Rhode Island. Placed on the ground in a suburban setting, it would simply read as a very small house. Tilted and precarilo perched on the side of a campus building, it is isolated and thus stands out.
one, contrasting, standard, exception
Opposing Force By reviewing the elements and principles of design discussed thus far, we can quickly create a long list of potential adversaries, including static/ dynamic, smooth/ textured, small/large, and curvilinear/ rectilinear. When the balance is just right, we can create powerful compositions from any such combination. Many artists and designers devote two-thirds of their compositional area to _____ force and roughly one-third to a __________ force. The larger force sets the _________, while the smaller force creates the ________
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Principles of Three-Dimensional Design To construct a successful composition, we must combine multiple parts to create a unified whole. Positive and negative forms create a lively dialogue and opposing forces add vitality rather than causing confusion. For example, Niels Diffrient combined graceful metal lines with contoured masses to create his Freedom Chair (10.1). In Tree of Life Fantasy (see figure 9.40, page 197) Alice Aycock combined lines, planes, and spaces to create an exuberant dance. Martin Puryear's Seer (10.2) consists of a closed volume at the top and an open volume at the bottom. The horn-shaped top piece is powerful and imposing, while the open construction at the bottom invites us to enter and visually explore the structure. Curving vertical "ribs" unify the top and bottom sections, while the contrast between open and closed forms adds a touch of mystery. In all three cases, every element is both dependent on and supportive of the other element. In the previous chapter, we explored the elements (or building blocks) of three-dimensional design. This chapter will describe ways in which we can combine these elements.
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key questions EMPHASIS • Is there a focal point in your composition? If not, should there be? • What is the dominant form in your composition? Is it the form you most want to emphasize?
Rhythm, tempo,
REPETITION AND RHYTHM As we noted at the beginning of this chapter, repetition occurs when we use the same visual element or effect any number of times within a composition. _______ can be defined as the organization of these multiple elements or effects into a deliberate pattern. Just as a musician creates a rhythmic pattern by connecting sound and silence, so the artist can create rhythm using positive form and negative space. Variations in volume can accentuate rhythm. For example, when every fourth beat is accented in a musical composition, a clear rhythm emerges. Repeated accents in an artwork have a similar effect. And the number of beats within a given space creates the ________, or rate of change. In David Watkins's Torus 280 (B2) (10.36), the large circular shapes create a slow, regular pattern. Increasing the number of circles would accelerate the tempo. Rhythm plays an even greater role in figure 10.37. The woven herringbone pattern at the bottom suggests a clockwise and then a counterclockwise visual movement. A similar pattern at the top accentuates spatial depth. Tapered rectangles create a border around both the interior and the exterior edges. Like a complex musical piece, the artists have skillfully woven together three types of rhythm Because sculptures can be viewed from all sides, three-dimensional rhythm is especially powerful. The movement of four women around an exuberant musician creates a joyous dance in Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux's The Dance (10.38). Our eyes follow the turning heads, clasped hands, and swirling arms as they move in, out, and around in space. A similar rhythm animates Steve Woodward's Model of Proposal for Concourse Commission (10.39). They plywood vortex seems to rise out of the floor to collect in a spinning disk at the top, and then descend again, in perceptual motion. When combined with the spinning effect, this ascending and descending movement gives the design great vitality. Artists and designers often use repetition to increase compositional unity and conceptual impact. For example, the 30 statues in magdalena abakanowicz's "Standing Figures (30)" (10.40) are unified by their similarity in size, shape, and solemnity.Variations in each cast bronze surface provide a degree of individuality. Often interpreted as victims of war, the hollow, headless figures seem frozen in time, offering silent testimony to a tragic past. The 6,000 clay soldiers filling the tomb of Emperor Shih Huang Ti (10.41) demonstrate a different use of repetition. As he faced his death, the emperor may have sought companionship or protection from his army. In each case, repetition and rhythm have been used deliberately in order to strengthen the artwork's visual impact and conceptual strength.
closure
Closure In an attempt to make sense of the world, our minds tend to connect fragmentary information into completed forms. We call this process ________. In Zac Freeman's Steve (10.7), we must visually connect hundreds of washers, screws, and other hardware to create a man's face. Closure makes it possible to communicate using implication. Freed of the necessity to provide every detail, the artist 10.7 Zac Freeman, Detail of Steve, 2006. Found objects on board, 60 X 48 in. (152 x 122 cm). or designer can convey an idea through suggestion rather than description. When the viewer completes the image in his or her mind, it is often more memorable than a more obvious image.
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Combining Unifying Forces James Ingo Freed used all these unifying forces to create the Tower of Photos in the Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, DC (10.8). His design team wanted to demonstrate the number of lives lost in one Polish village while honoring the individuality of the inhabitants. They collected and framed thousands of photographs, including groups of schoolchildren, weddings, and family snapshots. Placed in close proximity, the photographs personalize the victims while emphasizing their connection to the lost community. Based on the chimneys that released smoke from the burned bodies to the heavens, the tower itself provides the dominant framework for the exhibition, both structurally and emotionally.
unity, variety
UNITY AND VARIETY We can define ______ as similarity, oneness, togetherness, or cohesion. We can define _____ as difference. Unity and variety are the cornerstones of composition.
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key questions REPETITION AND RHYTHM • Try repeating any element in your design. What does this repetition contribute, conceptually and compositionally? • What happens when you change simple repetition to specific rhythm? • Does the rhythm remain constant in your design, or is there a change in tempo? What is the advantage of each approach?
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key questions SCALE AND PROPORTION • What would happen to your composition if you dramatically changed its scale? • What would happen conceptually if you dramatically changed its proportions? • Imagine that you can stretch or compress your design in any direction. What are the advantages of a very tall, thin composition compared to a short, cubic composition? • How does a change in scale or proportion affect balance?
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key questions UNITY AND VARIETY • What strategies have you used to unify your composition? • What gives your composition variety? • Is the balance between unity and variety appropriate for the ideas that you want to express? • What would happen if you constructed your composition using a grid or matrix? • How can you use space to increase unity or increase variety?
Containment
Containment _________ is a unifying force created by the outer edge of a composition or by a boundary within a composition. A container encourages us to seek connections among visual units and helps to define negative space. The room itself provides the container for Roni Horn's How Dickinson Stayed Home (10.4). Horn presents letters from the alphabet on 26 small cubes. Like Emily Dickinson's poetry, the installation is both economical and expansive. A minimal amount of information evokes a wide range of interpretations. Contained by the room's white walls and dark floor, the blocks create a unified statement, despite their seemingly random distribution.
continuity
Continuity A fluid connection among compositional parts creates ________. When we place objects in close proximity, continuity often happens naturally. As figure 10.5B demonstrates, each form in Wedding Chapel IV touches several other forms. As a result, our eyes move easily from section to section, increasing the connections among the parts.
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Contrast and Connection Effective use of opposing forces can create a new form of dynamic unity. Like complementary colors, contrasting forces can simultaneously increase both unity and variety in a design. Loops (10.33), by Mary Ann Scherr, presents a contrast between movement and constraint. A curving plane encircles the wearer's throat, providing protection but restricting motion. Below, the suspended rings sway with every movement of the body, creating a dynamic counterpoint to the constraining collar. Water animates Pol Bury's Fountains at Palais Royal (10.34). The design relies on three major elements. The regularly spaced columns so characteristic of neoclassical architecture dominate the site itself. Placed on top of each circular fountain, the polished metal spheres reflect these columns and the shimmering water. In a sense, the spheres serve as mediators between the rigid columns and the silvery water. Like the columns, they are simple volumes arranged in a group. Like the water, they seem fluid as they reflect the rippling pool and the passing clouds. In this project, Pol Bury combined unity and variety to create an elegant and ever-changing sculpture. key questions
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Degrees and Forms of Contrast Contrast can appear in many forms and in varying degrees. In Arnaldo Pomodoro's Sphere Within Sphere (10.31), an external force seems to have eaten away at the imposing spherical form, revealing a pattern of rectilinear teeth and a second sphere inside. This creates a strong contrast between the massive structure and the invading space. In Plan, Prepare, Execute (10.32A and B), Liza Lou also used contrast to suggest an existing form's metamorphosis into a new configuration. It is hard to tell whether the dominant field of dark gray is "eating" or "being eaten" by the colorful patterns around the edge and the lines at the bottom. This uncertainty makes the artwork even more Intriguing
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Degrees of Unity As noted in Chapter Eight, our compositional choices must support our conceptual intentions. Some designs require a high level of unity. For example, Eva Hesse's Accession II (10.11) consists of a single cube. Dramatic contrast between the methodical exterior and the fiercely textured interior is the only significant variation. Other designs require a high level of variety. The lines, shapes, volumes, and masses in Sarah Sze's Hidden Relief (10.12) ricochet off the floor, walls, and ceiling with a chaotic energy.
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Emphasis through Color Color attracts attention, especially when it is unexpected or hard to explain. Color plays an especially important role with public art projects. The reds and violets in Janet Echleman's Tsunami 1.26 (9.28 on page 192) enhance the magical floating form. The white lines and planes in Alice Aycock's Tree of Life Fantasy on page 221 increase this sculpture's psychological buoyancy. And, as we noted on page 210, Kurt Perschke has installed his inflatable Red Ball Project at various sites in more than a dozen cities. In stark contrast to the grays and greens that we expect in urban settings, the 15-foot-tall ball immediately engages even the most distracted pedestrian.
grid, matrix
Grid and Matrix We can create a ________ through a series of intersecting lines. A ________ is a three-dimensional grid. Both can unify a design by creating containment, continuity, proximity, and repetition. In Number 56 (10.13), Leonardo Drew poured rust into hundreds of plastic bags, which he then connected to a wooden support. The rust and the methodically numbered plastic bags create a dialogue between the orderly grid and the decaying metal, This combination of order and disorder balances monotony with mystery. Daniel Buren's The Two Plateaus (10.14) offers another variant on the grid. This public art project, located in the Palais Royal in Paris, covers a 1,000-square-foot plaza. The striped cylinders range in height from about 2 to 5 feet. Mimicking the columns in the building and organized on the pavement like players on a checkerboard, they bring both energy and humor to the site.
Grouping
Grouping When we see a collection of separate visual units, we immediately try to create order and make connections. __________ is one of the first steps in this process. As we noted in the discussion of Gestalt psychology in Chapter Three, we generally group visual units by location, orientation, shape, and color. Towards the Corner (10.3), by Juan Muñoz, demonstrates grouping by location. We first see a complete composition comprising seven figures. It is roughly triangular in shape, starting with the standing figure on the far left and ending with the seated figure on the right. The division between the two sets of bleachers creates two subgroups, composed of two figures on the right and five figures on the left. We can further group the three figures seated on the top bleachers and the three figures seated on the bottom, with the single standing figure providing a visual exclamation point for the sculpture as a whole.
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Increasing Unity We tend to scan an entire composition, then analyze the individual parts. When the parts fit together beautifully, the compositional puzzle can be highly expressive. When the parts don't fit, a great idea can become incoherent and confused. As we will see in the following section, grouping, containment, proximity, continuity, repetition, and closure are six common strategies for increasing unity.
Difference, line, texture, pattern
Increasing Variety __________ in any aspect of a design increases variety. By reviewing the elements of design that we described in Chapter Nine and the principles of design described in this chapter, you can quickly create a checklist of areas for variation, such as: • ______ variation. Alice Aycock used lines of different diameter and texture in Tree of Life Fantasy (10.9). • Variation in ______. Combining smooth and textured surfaces can add energy and interest to even the simplest form. •Variation in ______. The Pacific island mask in figure 10.10 is unified through symmetrical balance. This underlying order freed the artist to experiment with many colors and patterns,
Proportion, industrial, aesthetic
Proportion ___________ refers to the relative size of visual elements within an image. When we compare the head's width with its height, or divide a composition into thirds, we are establishing a proportional relationship. In ________ design, changes in proportion can enhance or diminish function. The five gardening tools in figure 10.24 are all based on the same basic combination of handle, blades, and a simple pivot. The short-handled pruner in the lower-left corner is for trimming twigs and small branches from shrubs. It must fit comfortably in a single hand. The proportions of the lopper in the lower-right corner are much different. Its 20-inch-long handle provides the required leverage to cut heavier branches from small trees. Figure 10.25 presents another example of proportional variation. Each of the 20 teapots has a distinctive height and width. As with the gardening tools, these variations affect each teapot's function. In sculpture, variations in proportion can increase __________ impact. Figures 10.26 through 10.28 show three proportional variations on Constantin Brancusi's Bird in Space. In Maiastra (10.26), the abstract bird form is dominated by the egg-shaped torso, which tapers into the folded wings at the bottom and the raised head at the top. This bird is approximately three times taller than it is wide. Brancusi further abstracted Golden Bird (10.27) and elongated the body. The bird is now seven times to wide, and an elaborate base adds even more height to the sculpture. With Bird in Space (10.28), Brancusi elongated the form even more and added an expanding "foot" below the folded wings. This bird is almost 10 times taller than it is wide. By lengthening the columnar structure in this final version and carefully tapering the sculpture near the base, Brancusi made this simple sculpture fly. As with all design decisions, choosing the right scale and proportion greatly increases expressive power. Giovanni Bologna scaled Apennine (10.29) to overwhelm the viewer with a sense of the mountain spirit's presence. His human frame is monumental, and the surrounding trees and cliff appear to diminish by comparison Proportional extremes can be equally expressive. Less than 5 feet tall, Alberto Giacometti's Chariot (10.30) offers a somber analysis of the human condition. The solitary figure is delicately balanced on gigantic wheels, which rest on two small pedestals. The entire form is linear, as if distilled down to the barest essentials. Both the chariot and the life it transports are precariously balanced and seem fragile and vulnerable.
proximity
Proximity In design, the distance between visual units is called ________. Even very different forms can become unified when we place them in close proximity. For example, Louise Nevelson constructed Wedding Chapel IV (10.5A) from an improbable collection of wooden crates, staircase railings, dowels, chair legs, and other scrap. She organized them into 14 stacked boxes, creating a unified and energetic composition.
Repetition
Repetition _______ occurs when we use the same visual element or effect any number of times within a composition. Aaron Macsai used similar lines, shapes, textures, and colors in each of the Panels of Movement (10.6) segment. A spiral shape, a wavy line, a sphere, and at least one triangular shape appear repeatedly. Despite their variations in size, texture, and location, these repeated forms create a strong connection from panel to panel.
Scale, hand-held, human scale, monumental,
SCALE AND PROPORTION Scale _________ commonly refers to the size of a form when compared with human size. Using our body as a constant, we can identify three major types of scale relationships. Small-scale objects can be ______-_______ while ________ _______ refers to designs that are roughly our size, Very large objects and installations are ___________ in scale. Inspired by Theodore Gall's sculpture (figure 10.18, page 225), we can explore the implications of each scale type. The actual artwork is roughly 6 X 6 X 6 inches and can be handheld. At this scale, we are invited to enter and explore the artwork mentally rather than physically (10.23A). At triple this size (18 X 18 X 18 in.), the dominant head in the design would be about the size of our own head (10.23B). This would create a very different dialogue between the audience and the artwork. Expanded to monumental scale-say, 32 x 32 x 32 feet—the artwork would invite physical entry (10.23C). We could now stand beside the sculptural figures in the piece. Simply by changing the scale, the artist could create three different responses to the same composition.
