Chapter 12

source problem

another problem that shares some similarities with the target problem and that illustrates a way to solve the target problem.

Subgoals

intermediate states that are closer to the goal.

Experts _________________ than novices.

take a more effective approach to organizing the solution to a problem

compound remote-associate problem

three words are presented, such as pine, crab, and sauce, and the task is to determine one word that, when combined with each of these words, forms a new word or a phrase

Transcranial direct current stimulation

uses scalp electrodes to pass very low amplitude direct currents to the brain

Analogical paradox

while it is difficult to apply analogies in laboratory research, people routinely use analogies in real-world settings

alternate uses task

participants had 2 minutes to think of un- usual uses for common objects. For example, how many unusual uses can you think of for bricks? (A few examples: use as a weapon, a paperweight, a steppingstone, as a weight for an anchor.)

Fixation

people's tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution

analogy

A comparison of two different things that are similar in some way

two-string problem

A problem first described by Maier in which a person is given the task of attaching two strings together that are too far apart to be reached at the same time. This task was devised to illustrate the operation of functional fixedness.

Tower of Hanoi problem

A problem involving moving discs from one set of pegs to another. It has been used to illustrate the process involved in means-end analysis.

candle problem

A problem, first described by Duncker, in which a person is given a number of objects and is given the task of mounting a candle on a wall so it can burn without dripping wax on the floor. This problem was used to study functional fixedness.

think-aloud protocol

A procedure in which participants are asked to say out loud what they are thinking while doing a problem. This procedure is used to help determine people's thought processes as they are solving a problem.

Creative cognition

A technique developed by Finke to train people to think creatively.

Explain the nine-dot problem. Why is this problem so difficult?

Draw four straight lines that pass through all nine dots without lifting your pen from the paper or retracing a line. it is difficult because of our tendency to perceive individual elements as grouped together so we group the dots as a square and do not think to extend the lines outside of the square

experts

Individuals who possess well-organized funds of knowledge, including the effective problem-solving strategies, in a field.

Problem space

The initial state, goal state, and all the possible intermediate states for a particular problem.

incubation

The phe- nomenon of getting ideas after taking a "time-out" from working on a problem

Analogical transfer

Transferring experience in solving one problem to the solution of another, similar problem. the transfer

mutilated checkerboard problem

Two red corner squares removed from checkerboard: can't cover the remaining squares with 31 dominoes. Demonstrates how the way a problem is stated can influence its difficulty (red/black, bread/butter, russian match maker)

Group brainstorming

When people in a problem-solving group are encouraged to express whatever ideas come to mind, without censorship.

trade off strategy

a negotiating strategy in which one person says to an- other, "I'll give you A, if you'll give me B."

restructuring

a new way of thinking about a problem that aids its solution; the process of changing the problem's representation

Mental set

a preconceived notion about how to approach a problem, which is determined by a person's experi- ence of what has worked in the past

Means-end analysis

a process of searching for the means or steps to reduce differences between the current situation and the desired goal

Insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; any sudden comprehension, realization, or problem solution that involves a reorganization of a person's mental representation of a stimulus, situation, or event to yield an interpretation that was not initially obvious

Operators

actions that take the problem from one state to another

The text's discussion of the research on in vivo problem solving highlighted that _________________ play(s) an important role in solving scientific problems.

analogies

In the Tower of Hanoi problem, the _________________ state involves having three discs stacked on the left peg, with the middle and right pegs empty.

initial

Intermediate state

conditions after each step is made toward solving a problem

Initial state

conditions at the beginning of the problem

Executive Control Network

directing attention as a person is carrying out tasks; plays a crucial role in creativity

Preinventive forms

ideas that precede the creation of a finished creative product.

In vivo problem-solving research

involves observing people to determine how they solve problems in real-world situations

Finke's creating an object studies show that people were more likely to come up with creative uses for preinventive objects if they

made the objects themselves.

problem

occurs when there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle

Actions that take the problem from one state to another are known as

operators

Gestalt psychologists consider problem solving as a process involving

reorganization or restructuring.

Warmth judgments on nearness to a solution _________________ prior to the solution of an insight problem and _________________prior to the solution of a non-insight problem.

rise suddenly just; gradually rise

Goal state

solution to a problem

analytically based problems

solved by a process of systematic analysis, often using techniques based on past experience.

Considering the fortress and the radiation problems together, the fortress problem represents the _________________ problem.

source

water jug problem

subjects were told that their task was to figure out on paper how to obtain a required volume of water, given three empty jars for measures

In analogical problem solving, the _________________ problem is the problem that an individual is trying to solve, and the _________________ problem, which has been solved in the past, is used as a guide for reaching that solution.

target; source

Creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas

Target problem

the problem the subject is trying to solve

Analogical Encoding

the process by which two problems are compared and similarities between them are determined

Insight refers to

the sudden realization of a problem's solution.

Functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

Why does placing people in groups to share ideas result in fewer ideas than adding up the ideas generated by the same number of people asked to think of ideas individually?

there are people that dominate the discussion to others are not allowed to express their opinions, afraid to express their opinions for being judged, and people may be too focused on paying attention to others in the group to create their own ideas

Divergent thinking

thinking that is open-ended, involving a large number of potential "solutions"

Duncker's radiation problem

you are a doctor faced with a patient who has a malignant tumor in his stomach. It is impossible to operate on the patient, but unless the tumor is destroyed the patient will die. There is a kind of ray that can be used to destroy the tumor. If the ray reaches the tumor at a sufficiently high intensity, the tumor will be destroyed. Unfortunately, at this intensity the healthy tissue that the ray passes through on the way to the tumor will also be destroyed. At lower intensities the ray is harmless to healthy tissue, but it will not affect the tumor either. What type of procedure might be used to destroy the tumor and at the same time avoid destroying the healthy tissue

analogical problem solving

using the solution to a similar problem to guide solution of a new problem