Chapter 12

Other race effect

Develops during infancy, between 3 and 9 months of age

How does romantic love typically change as time passes?

Intimate love relationships start with passionate love—an intensely aroused state. Over time, the strong affection of companionate love may develop, especially if enhanced by an equitable relationship and by intimate self-disclosure.

In an experiment by David Napolitan and George Goethals, a young woman acted either aloof and critical to one group of students or warm and friendly to the other. Some of them in each group were told that she would be acting spontaneously, and some were told the truth, that she was merely acting aloof or friendly. What effect did knowing the truth, or not knowing the truth, have on the students' opinion of the woman?

Knowing the truth beforehand did not have any effect on how the students perceived her either negatively or positively.

More likely to conform when

Made to feel incompetent or insecure Are in a group with at least three people Admire group's status and attractiveness Have not already committed ourselves to any response Know that others in the group will observe our behavior Are from a culture that encourages respect for social standards

What are three main focuses of social psychology?

Social psychology focuses on how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. Social psychologists study the social influences that explain why the same person will act differently in different situations.

Frustration-aggression principle

The principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achive a goal—creates anger, which can generate

Evidence of a biochemical influence on aggression is the finding that

a higher-than-average level of the hormone testosterone is associated with violent behavior in males.

If we encounter a person who appears to be high on drugs, and we make the fundamental attribution error, we will probably attribute the person's behavior to

moral weakness or an addictive personality.

The other-race effect occurs when we assume that other groups are __________ (more/less) homogeneous than our own group.

more

In a study on social loafing, blindfolded students were asked to pull on a rope as hard as they could. The students pulled hardest when they thought:

no one else was pulling with them.

A _____ is an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior in a given group.

norm

Due to the bystander effect, a particular bystander is less likely to give aid if

other people are present.

After vigorous exercise, you meet an attractive person, and you are suddenly seized by romantic feelings for that person. This response supports the two-factor theory of emotion, which assumes that emotions, such as passionate love, consist of physical arousal plus

our interpretation of that arousal.

If several well-publicized murders are committed by members of a particular group, we may tend to react with fear and suspicion toward all members of that group. In other words, we

overgeneralize from vivid, memorable cases.

At her health club, Sarah pedals an exercise bike much faster when other patrons are using nearby equipment. This best illustrates _____.

social facilitation

Jim is not a great golfer; he has only been playing golf for 2 years. One day Jim was playing alone and a foursome in front of him told him he could play through. All four of the others watched him tee off. According to research on _____, we can expect that Jim will not perform well.

social facilitation

Norman Triplett observed that adolescents wound a fishing reel faster in the presence of someone working simultaneously on the same task. This best illustrates _____.

social facilitation

A person in a group tends to exert MORE effort when he is individually accountable than when he is working with others toward a common goal. This is known as:

social loafing

Blindfolded people were observed to clap louder when they thought they were clapping alone than when they thought they were clapping with others. This best illustrates _____.

social loafing

Prejudice toward a group involves negative feelings, a tendency to discriminate, and overly generalized beliefs referred to as __________.

stereotypes

Kathleen is well liked by her friends. When you watch her, you can see that she mimics her friends' gestures and seems to match their moods. Kathleen's behavior would suggest that this automatic mimicry is a component of _____.

empathy

We tend to agree to a larger request more readily if we have already agreed to a small request. This tendency is called the __________-__________-__________-__________phenomenon.

foot-in-the-door

Early one Halloween evening, Evan's friends asked him to join them in smashing their neighbors' decorative pumpkins. He complied. Later, he was surprised by his own failure to resist them when they asked him to throw eggs at passing police cars. Evans's experience best illustrates the _____.

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

The gradually escalating levels of destructive obedience in the Milgram experiments best illustrate one of the potential dangers of the _____.

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

During a test, Abe impulsively copied several answers from a nearby student's paper. He felt very uncomfortable about having done this until he convinced himself that copying answers is not wrong if classmates are careless enough to expose their test sheets. Which theory BEST explains why Abe adopted this new attitude?

cognitive dissonance theory

A happy couple celebrating their 50th wedding anniversary is likely to experience deep ___________ love, even though their ____________ love has probably decreased over the years.

companionate; passionate

When we adjust our own behavior or thinking so that it coincides with a group standard, we are exhibiting:

conformity.

A tendency to overestimate the extent to which a stranger's violent behavior stems from his or her aggressive personality best illustrates the _____.

fundamental attribution error

Marilyn thinks strict class attendance policy is an indication of her professor's overly controlling personality rather than a necessity dictated by the limited number of class sessions (the course meets only once a week). Her judgment BEST illustrates:

fundamental attribution error

Groupthink is fueled by a desire for:

group harmony

Sharing our opinions with like-minded others tends to strengthen our views, a phenomenon referred to as __________.

group polarization

Louis is an expert on psychometrics and assessment; however, three of the clinicians disagree on his choice of scales. Louis decides to change his opinion for the good of the group. This BEST illustrates:

groupthink

In Asch conformity experiments, researchers find that conformity to the group _____ when the group is unanimous.

increases

A statement by 21 social scientists studying the effects of pornography noted that violent pornography

leads viewers to be more accepting of coercion in sexual relations.

Studies show that parents of delinquent young people tend to use beatings to enforce discipline. This suggests that aggression can be

learned through observation of aggressive models.

The more familiar a stimulus becomes, the more we tend to like it. This exemplifies the __________ __________ effect.

mere exposure

Our enemies often have many of the same negative impressions of us as we have of them. This exemplifies the concept of __________-__________ perceptions.

mirror-image

One way of resolving conflicts and fostering cooperation is by giving rival groups shared goals that help them override their differences. These are called __________ goals.

superordinate

Reversing the perspectives of actor and observer reduces _____ among observers.

the fundamental attribution error

A tendency to overestimate the extent to which a stranger's violent behavior stems from his or her aggressive personality BEST illustrates:

the fundamental attribution error.

The tendency for observers to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal dispositions on another's behavior is called:

the fundamental attribution error.

In the Asch conformity experiments, researchers find that conformity to the group increases when:

the group is unanimous.

Researchers have found that a person is most likely to conform to a group if

the person admires the group's status.

The fundamental attribution error involves:

underestimating situational influences on another's behavior.

How to promote peace

• Contact • Cooperation o Superordinate goals—Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.

In a follow-up to his original obedience experiment, Milgram used 40 new teachers to determine whether participants obeyed because the learners' protests were not convincing. The new teachers complied fully _____ percent of the time.

65

In the original Milgram obedience experiment, men aged 20 to 50 had complied fully _____ percent of the time.

<60

Equity

A condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it

Companionate love

A deep, affectionate attachment

Ingroup Bias

A favoring of own group

Stereotypes

A generalized belief about a group of people

Norms

A group's rules for "Proper" behavior

Roles

A set of expectation about a social position

How does the fundamental attribution error describe how we tend to explain others' behavior compared with our own?

We may commit the fundamental attribution error (especially if we come from an individualistic Western culture) when explaining others' behavior, by underestimating the influence of the situation and overestimating the effects of personality. When we explain our own behavior, however, we more often recognize the influence of the situation.

_____are feelings that are based on beliefs. They predispose people to react in a particular way to objects, people, and events.

Attitudes

Social scripts

Culturally provided mental files for how to act

During a riot, a large sporting event, or mob action, we lose self-awareness and self-restraint. This is known as:

...

What biological factors predispose us to be aggressive?

Aggression is a complex behavior resulting from the interaction of biology and experience. Biology influences our threshold for aggressive behaviors at three levels: genetic (inherited traits), biochemical (such as alcohol or excess testosterone in the bloodstream), and neural (activity in key brain areas).

What is altruism? When are we most—and least—likely to help?

Altruism is unselfish regard for the well-being of others. We are most likely to help when we (a) notice an incident, (b) interpret it as an emergency, and (c) assume responsibility for helping. Other factors, including our mood and our similarity to the victim, also affect our willingness to help. We are least likely to help if other bystanders are present (the bystander effect).

Passionate love

An arousal state of intense positive absorption in another, useually present at the beginning of a love relationship 1. Physical arousal 2. cognitive appraisal

Social-responsibility norm

An expectation that people will help those dependent upon them

Reciprocity norm

An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who helped them

Altruism

An unselfish concern for the welfare of others

Aggression

Any verbal or physical behavior intended to hurt or destroy • Genetic influences o One twin will admit to having a temper while the other twin also admits to the same act o Fraternal twins are less likely to respond similarly • Biochemical influences o Testosterone levels o Achole • .Neural influences o Amygdala

Carl thinks that his new neighbor is mean and snobbish. This _____ will likely influence Carl to act negatively toward his neighbor.

Attitude

What is an attitude, and how do attitudes and actions affect each other?

Attitudes are feelings, often based on our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in certain ways. Attitudes that are stable, specific, and easily recalled can affect our actions when other influences are minimal. Actions also modify our attitudes. This can be seen in the foot-in-the-door phenomenon (complying with a large request after having agreed to a small request) and role playing (acting a social part by following guidelines for expected behavior). When our attitudes don't fit with our actions, cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we will reduce tension by changing our attitudes to match our actions.

The three parts of prejudice

Belief Emotion Predispostitions

Jamal's therapist has suggested that Jamal should "act as if" he is confident, even though he feels insecure and shy. Which social psychological theory would best support this suggestion, and what might the therapist be hoping to achieve?

Cognitive dissonance theory best supports this suggestion. If Jamal acts confident, his behavior will contradict his negative self-thoughts, creating cognitive dissonance. To relieve the tension, Jamal may realign his attitudes with his actions by viewing himself as more outgoing and confident.

Zimbardo

Conducted a experiment in which people pretended to be guards and prisoners.

What social processes fuel conflict? How can we transform feelings of prejudice and conflict into behaviors that promote peace?

Conflicts, perceived incompatibilities of actions goals or ideas between individuals and cultures, are often fed by distorted mirror-image perceptions—each party views itself as ethical and peaceful and the other as untrustworthy and evil-intentioned. Peace can result when individuals or groups cooperate to achieve superordinate (shared) goals.

Solomon Asch

Experimented on the way humans form conformity

Conditions where attitudes most likely affect behavior

External influences are minimal The attitude is stable The attitude is specific to the behavior The attitude is easily recalled

What psychological and social-cultural factors may trigger aggressive behavior?

Frustration (frustration-aggression principle), aversive events, getting rewarded for aggression, seeing an aggressive role model, and poor self-control can all contribute to aggression. Viewing sexual violence contributes to greater aggression toward women. Media portrayals of violence provide social scripts that children learn to follow.

Jose's friends ask him to participate in some activities. He feels pressure to join them even though the adventures might not be in his best interest. Which of the following reasons might be strengthening Jose's conformity to the group?

He admires the group's status and attractiveness.

How do social norms explain helping behavior?

Helping results from socialization, in which we are taught guidelines for expected behaviors in social situations, such as the reciprocity norm and the social-responsibility norm.

Social facilitation

Improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

How can group interaction enable group polarization and groupthink?

In group polarization, group discussions with like-minded others cause us to feel more strongly about our shared beliefs and attitudes. Internet communication magnifies this effect, for better and for worse. Groupthink is driven by a desire for harmony within a group, causing its members to overlook important alternatives.

How does the presence of others influence our actions, via social facilitation, social loafing, or deindividuation?

In social facilitation, the presence of others arouses us, improving performance on easy tasks but hindering it on difficult ones. Social loafing is the tendency when participating in a group project to feel less responsible, when we may free ride on others' efforts. When the presence of others both arouses us and makes us feel less responsible, we may experience deindividuation—loss of self-awareness and self-restraint.

Experiments by _____ on obedience at Yale University are some of the most famous, and involved deception.

Milgram

His experiments on obedience at Yale University are some of the most famous, and involved deception.

Milgram

Mirror-image perceptions

Mutual views on both sides regarding one another

The three conditions necessary for bystanders to help

Notice the incident Interpret the event as an emergency Assume responsibility for helping

In-group

People with whom we share a common identity

What are the three parts of prejudice, and how has prejudice changed over time?

Prejudice is an unjustifiable, usually negative, attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice's three components are (a) beliefs (often stereotypes), (b) emotions (negative feelings), and (c) predispositions to action (discrimination). Open prejudice has decreased, but subtle prejudice and automatic prejudice—occurring without our awareness—continue.

The three ingredients of attraction

Proximity Phsical attractiveness Similarity

Why do we befriend or fall in love with some people but not others?

Proximity (geographical nearness) increases liking; in part because of the mere exposure effect—exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of those stimuli. Physical attractiveness increases social opportunities and improves the way we are perceived. Similarity of attitudes and interests greatly increases liking, especially as relationships develop. We also like those who like us.

_____ psychologists explore why the same person will act differently in different situations.

Social

What factors contribute to the social roots of prejudice, and how does scapegoating illustrate the emotional roots of prejudice?

Social inequalities and social divisions feed prejudice. Favored social groups often justify their higher status with the just-world phenomenon. We tend to favor our own group (ingroup bias) as we divide ourselves into us (the ingroup) and them (the outgroup). We may use prejudice to protect our emotional well-being, such as when focusing anger by blaming events on a scapegoat.

What do experiments on conformity and obedience reveal about the power of social influence?

Solomon Asch and others have found that we are most likely to conform to a group standard when (a) we feel incompetent or insecure, (b) our group has at least three people, (c) everyone else agrees, (d) we admire the group's status, (e) we have not already committed to another response, (f) we know we are being observed, and (g) our culture encourages respect for social standards. In Stanley Milgram's famous experiments, people usually obeyed the experimenter's orders even when they thought they were harming another person. Obedience was highest when (a) the experimenter was nearby and (b) was a legitimate authority figure supported by an important institution, (c) the victim was not nearby, and (d) there were no role models for defiance.

Group polarization

Strengthening of a group's preexisting attitudes through discussions within the group

What do the social influence studies teach us about ourselves? How much power do we have as individuals?

Strong social influences can make people to conform to falsehoods or give in to cruelty. Even a small minority sometimes sways a group, especially when the minority expresses its views consistently. Social control (the power of the situation) and personal control (the power of the individual) interact.

What are the cognitive roots of prejudice?

The cognitive roots of prejudice grow from our natural ways of processing information: forming categories, remembering vivid cases, and believing that the world is just and our culture's way of doing things is the right way.

Groupthink

The desire for harmony while throwing out the concept of realistic judgement

Chamelon effect

The effect in which humans mimic other humans

Discrimination

The learned behavior between a conditioned stimulus and other irrevant stimuli

Deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

Conflict

The perception that actions, goals, or ideals are incompatible

Mere exposure effect

The phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increase liking of them

Minority influence

The power of one or two individuals to sway majorities

Dr. Huang, a popular music professor, delivers fascinating lectures on music history but gets nervous and makes mistakes when describing exam statistics in front of the class. Why does his performance vary by task?

The presence of a large audience generates arousal and strengthens Dr. Huang's most likely response: enhanced performance on a task he has mastered (teaching music history) and impaired performance on a task he finds difficult (statistics).

Norman Triplet

The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

Bystander effect

The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

Social loafing

The tendency for people in a grouo to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaing a common goal then when individually accountable

Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a later request

Just-world phenomenon

The tendency to belive that the world is just and people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

Fundamental attribution error

The tendency to overestimate the influence of personal traits and underestimate the effects of the situation

Scapegoat theory

The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

Cognitive dissonance theory

The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when our thoughts class

Outgroup

Those perceived as different or apart from our group

Empathize

To feel what others feel

Self-disclosure

To reveal intimate details about ourselves

Prejudice

Unfair negative attitude toward some group

The Stanford Prison Experiment consisted of male college students who volunteered to participate in the simulation of a prison. Half of the students became guards, the other half prisoners. What is the name of the psychologist who had to call off the study in only six days because of the degrading behaviors displayed by the guards and the way the prisoners became passive, broke down, or rebelled?

Zimbargo

In the years immediately following the introduction of school desegregation in the United States and the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, White Americans expressed diminishing racial prejudice. According to the textbook author, this BEST illustrated the impact of:

actions on attitudes

The aspect of X-rated films that most directly influences men's aggression toward women seems to be the

depictions of sexual violence.

In a group situation that fosters arousal and anonymity, a person sometimes loses self-consciousness and self-control. This phenomenon is called __________.

deindividuation

Individuals who are normally law-abiding may vandalize and loot when they become part of a mob. This change in behavior is BEST understood in terms of:

deindividuation

Jason's friend yells at him for being 5 minutes late for lunch. Rather than believe his friend is a rude jerk, he decides that she may be having difficulties with her partner thus her behavior is attributed to:

her situation.

In Milgram's experiments, the rate of obedience was highest when

the "learner" was at a distance from the "teacher."