Chapter 13 Anotomy of the Nervous System

Differentiate between the stages and categories of memory.

The three main stages of memory are encoding, storage, and retrieval. Problems can occur at any of these stages. ... Implicit and explicit memories are two different types of long-term memory. Implicit memories are of sensory and automatized behaviors, and explicit memories are of information, episodes, or events.

2. Name and locate the ventricles of the brain.

The ventricles of the brain are a communicating network of cavities filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and located within the brain parenchyma. The ventricular system is composed of 2 lateral ventricles, the third ventricle, the cerebral aqueduct, and the fourth ventricle

Describe some ways to diagnose brain disorders.

Your doctor will likely perform a neurological exam to check your vision, hearing, and balance. Your doctor may also get images of your brain to help them make a diagnosis. The most common diagnostic imaging tools are CT, MRI, and PET scans. Your doctor might also need to study fluid from your brain and spinal cord.

List and classify the major spinal cord tracts.

Ascending - Sensory, 1,2,3rd neurons. Three major somatosensory pathways: Dorsal column, Spinothalamic pathway (pain/temp sensation), Spinocerebellar pathway (proprioceptors)

Define consciousness.

Awareness of ourselves and our environment

Explain the structure and function of the basal nuclei.

Basal Nuclei Function Output nuclei send signals from the basal ganglia to the thalamus. Intrinsic nuclei relay nerve signals and information between the input nuclei and output nuclei. The basal ganglia receive information from the cerebral cortex and thalamus through input nuclei.

Describe the brain stem in terms of functional regions, noting the location of each.

Brain stem consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata, produces rigidly programmed, automatic behaviors necessary for survival. Midbrain: is comprised of the cerebral peduncles, corpora quadrigemina, and substantia nigra. The pons contains fiber tracts that complete conducting pathways between the brain and spinal cord. The medulla oblongata is the location of several visceral motor nuclei controlling vital functions such as cardiac and respiratory rate.

Explain how CSF forms and describe its circulatory pathway.

THE NORMAL CSF. The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is produced from arterial blood by the choroid plexuses of the lateral and fourth ventricles by a combined process of diffusion, pinocytosis and active transfer. A small amount is also produced by ependymal cells. ... The rate of absorption correlates with the CSF pressure. . The ventricular system is the major pathway for the flow of CSF. CSF also flows directly from the ventricles into the brain tissue surrounding them.

Discuss spinal cord structure in terms of both gross and microscopic anatomy.

Spinal cord enclosed in the vertebral column extends from the foramen magnum of the skull to the level of the first or second lumbar vertebra, just inferior to the ribs. provides a 2 way conduction path to and from the brain.

Describe the causes, symptoms, and signs of cerebrovascular accidents, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease.

Cerebrovascular accidents (CVA's) - Stroke, blood supply to brain blocked. Signs: Transient Ischmic Attacks (TIAs) temporary blood blockage Alzheimer's Disease - Results from progressive degenerative disease, leads to dementia. Destruction of ACh receptors & producers. Creates tangles of neurons. Parkinson's Disease - Results from deterioration of dopamine secreting neurons of Substania Negra. Loss of coordination and movement. Resting Tremor Huntington's Disease - Fatal Hereditary disorder that results from deterioration of basal nuclei and cerebral cortex, Cannot start/stop movement easily. Due to extra long sequence of CAG on chromasome 4. Signs are genetic, autosomal dominate.

Locate and discuss the function of the limbic system and reticular formation.

Functional brain systems consist of neurons that are distributed throughout the brain but work together The limbic system: is involved with emotions, and is extensively connected throughout the brain, allowing it to integrate and respond to a wide variety of environmental stimuli. It's located on medial aspect of each cerebral hemisphere and diencephalon. Encircles upper part of brainstem and includes parts of rhinencephalon (septal nuclei, cingulate gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, dentate gyrus, and C-shapped hippocampus). Amygdala: fear. Cingulate gyrus: expressing emotions through gestures. The reticular formation: extends through the brain stem, keeping the cortex alert via the reticular activating system, and dampening familiar, repetitive, or weak sensory inputs.

Describe and locate the major lobes, fissures, and functional areas of the cerebral cortex.

Gyri (Gyrus) - Ridges or folds in the brain Sluci (sulcus) - grooves in the brain Longitudinal Fissure - Midline that separates the cerebral hemispheres Transverse cerebral fissure - Separates the cerebellum with the cerebral hemispheres Central Sulcus - extends across the lateral surface of the cerebrum from superior to inferior (about midway along the length of the brain) Precentral gyrus - Primary motor cortex, anterior of the central sulcus Postcentral gyrus - Primary somatosensory cortex Frontal Lobe - Voluntary motor function, concentration verbal communication, decision making, motivation, aggression, sense of smell, planning, personality and mood Parietal Lobe - Major center for receiving and evaluating most sensory information (except olfaction, hearing and vision) Occipital lobe - receiving and integrating visual input and storing visual memories Temporal lobe - Receives and evaluates input for smell and hearing. Abstract thought and judgement Insula - Social emotions (lust, disgust, pride, humiliation, guilt & atonement) Lights up when people crave drugs, feel pain and processes taste (gustator)

Describe the diencephalon in terms of location, subdivisions, and functions.

Is a set of gray matter areas forming the central core of the forebrain and surrounded by the cerebral hemispheres, that collectively enclose the 3rd ventricle, and consists of the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus. Thalamus: plays a role in meditating sensation, motor activities, cortical arousal, learning, and memory. Hypothalamus: control center of the body, regulating ANS activity such as emotional response, body temp, food intake, sleep-wake cycles, and endocrine function. SWEET HAT: Epithalamus: includes the pineal gland, which secretes melatonin, and regulates sleep-wake cycle.

Differentiate between spastic and flaccid paralysis.

Paralysis is defined as nerve damage that results in a loss of muscle strength and control. ... Finally, flaccid paralysis is when the muscles are relaxed and therefore shrink, while spastic paralysis is when muscles are tight and hard, and might even jerk periodically in what is called a spasm.

Name and locate the regions of the adult brain

The adult brain is separated into four major regions: the cerebrum, the diencephalon, the brain stem, and the cerebellum. The cerebrum is the largest portion and contains the cerebral cortex and subcortical nuclei. It is divided into two halves by the longitudinal fissure.

Discuss the major brain structures involved in declarative and procedural memories.

The amygdala is involved in fear and fear memories. The hippocampus is associated with declarative and episodic memory as well as recognition memory. The cerebellum plays a role in processing procedural memories, such as how to play the piano. The prefrontal cortex appears to be involved in remembering semantic tasks.

Define the blood-brain barrier and discuss how it along with the meninges and CSF protect the CNS.

The brain is protected from injury by the skull, meninges, cerebrospinal fluid and the blood-brain barrier. ... The function of the meninges is to cover and protect the brain itself. It encloses and protects the vessels that supply the brain and contains CSF between the pia mater and arachnoid maters.

Discuss the cerebellum in terms of structure and function.

The cerebellum processes inputs from several structures and coordinates skeletal muscle contraction to produce smooth movement. There are two cerebellar hemispheres consisting of three lobes each. Anterior and posterior lobes coordinate body movements and the flocculonodular lobes adjust posture to maintain balance. Three paired fiber tracts, the cerebellar peduncles, communicate between the cerebellum and the brain stem. Cerebellar processing follows a functional scheme in which the frontal cortex communicates the intent to initiate voluntary movement to the cerebellum, the cerebellum collects input concerning balance and tension in muscles and ligaments, and the best way to coordinate muscle activity is relayed back to the cerebral cortex.

Define and characterize commissures, association fibers, and projection fibers.

The commissural fibers or transverse fibers are axons that connect the two hemispheres of the brain. In contrast to commissural fibers, association fibers connect regions within the same hemisphere of the brain, and projection fibers connect each region to other parts of the brain or to the spinal cord.

Discuss lateralization of hemisphere function.

The lateralization of brain function is the tendency for some neural functions or cognitive processes to be specialized to one side of the brain or the other. The medial longitudinal fissure separates the human brain into two distinct cerebral hemispheres, connected by the corpus callosum.