Chapter 13: Small Group Communication

Teams

are task-oriented groups in which members are especially loyal and dedicated to the task and other group members Successful Teams Have: clear and inspiring shared goals, • a results-driven structure, • competent team members, • a collaborative climate, • high standards for performance, • external support and recognition, and • ethical and accountable leadership.

Group Fantasies

are verbalized references to events outside the "here and now" of the group, including references to the group's past, predictions for the future, or other communication about people or events outside the group

Virtual Groups

take advantage of new technologies and meet exclusively or primarily online to achieve their purpose or goal. Some virtual groups may complete their task without ever being physically face-to-face. Virtual groups bring with them distinct advantages and disadvantages

Task Cohesion

refers to the commitment of group members to the purpose and activities of the group

Group Cohesion

refers to the commitment of members to the purpose of the group and the degree of attraction among individuals within the group The cohesion that begins in this stage sets the group on a trajectory influenced by group members' feelings about one another and their purpose or task

Synergy

refers to the potential for gains in performance or heightened quality of interactions when complementary members or member characteristics are added to existing ones

Group Socialization

refers to the process of teaching and learning the norms, rules, and expectations associated with group interaction and group member behaviors. Group norms, rules, and cohesion can only be created and maintained through socialization It is also through socialization that a shared identity and social reality develops among group members, but this development is dependent on several factors

Symbolic Convergence

refers to the sense of community or group consciousness that develops in a group through non-taskrelated communication such as stories and jokes

Advantages of Small Groups

shared decision making, shared resources, synergy, and exposure to diversity. It is within small groups that most of the decisions that guide our country, introduce local laws, and influence our family interactions are made. Group members also help expand our social networks, which provide access to more resources

5 Stages of Group Development: Norming

the practices and expectations of the group are solidified, which leads to more stability, productivity, and cohesion within the group. Group norms are behaviors that become routine but are not explicitly taught or stated. In short, group norms help set the tone for what group members ought to do and how they ought to behave At this stage, there is a growing consensus among group members as to the roles that each person will play, the way group interactions will typically play out, and the direction of the group. Leaders that began to emerge have typically gained the support of other group members, and group identity begins to solidify.

Advantages vs. Disadvantages

Advantages of group communication include shared decision making, shared resources, synergy, and exposure to diversity. Disadvantages of group communication include unnecessary group formation (when the task would be better performed by one person), difficulty coordinating schedules, and difficulty with accountability and social loafing.

Conformity

Although these pressures may seem negative, they also have positive results. Groups that exert an appropriate and ethical amount of conformity pressure typically have higher levels of group cohesion, which as we learned leads to increased satisfaction with group membership, better relationships, and better task performance. Groups with a strong but healthy level of conformity also project a strong group image to those outside the group, which can raise the group's profile or reputation

Groups Meet Interpersonal Needs

Group membership meets interpersonal needs by giving us access to inclusion, control, and support. In terms of inclusion, people have a fundamental drive to be a part of a group and to create and maintain social bonds People also join groups because they want to have some control over a decision-making process or to influence the outcome of a group. Being a part of a group allows people to share opinions and influence others. Conversely, some people join a group to be controlled, because they don't want to be the sole decision maker or leader and instead want to be given a role to follow. Groups also provide support for others in ways that supplement the support that we get from significant others in interpersonal relationships

Functions of Small Groups

Groups Meet Instrumental Needs Groups Meet Interpersonal Needs Groups Meet Identity Needs

Groups Meet Instrumental Needs

Groups have long served the instrumental needs of humans, helping with the most basic elements of survival since ancient humans first evolved ie: labor unions

Primary Groups

Our family and friends are considered primary groups, or long lasting groups that are formed based on relationships and include significant others. These are the small groups in which we interact most frequently. They form the basis of our society and our individual social realities. Kinship networks provide important support early in life and meet physiological and safety needs, which are essential for survival. They also meet higher-order needs such as social and self-esteem needs.

Types of Small Groups

Task-Oriented Groups Relational-Oriented Groups Primary Groups Secondary Groups Teams Virtual Groups

Primary and Secondary Tensions

While primary tensions eventually disappear (at least until a new member arrives), secondary tensions will come and go and may persist for longer periods of time.

Relational-Oriented Groups

are formed to promote interpersonal connections and are more focused on quality interactions that contribute to the well-being of group members. Decision making is directed at strengthening or repairing relationships rather than completing discrete tasks or debating specific ideas or courses of action. All groups include task and relational elements, so it's best to think of these orientations as two ends of a continuum rather than as mutually exclusive

Task-Oriented Groups

are formed to solve a problem, promote a cause, or generate ideas or information In such groups, like a committee or study group, interactions and decisions are primarily evaluated based on the quality of the final product or output. The three main types of tasks are production, discussion, and problem-solving tasks

5 Stages of Group Development: Storming

conflict emerges as people begin to perform their various roles, have their ideas heard, and negotiate where they fit in the group's structure

Group CLimate

e refers to the relatively enduring tone and quality of group interaction that is experienced similarly by group members. To better understand cohesion and climate, we can examine two types of cohesion: task and social.

5 Stages of Group Development

forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning

Social Loafing

meaning they contribute less to the group than other members or than they would if working alone

5 Stages of Group Development: Adjourning

occurs when a group dissolves because it has completed its purpose or goal, membership is declining and support for the group no longer exists, or it is dissolved because of some other internal or external cause. Some groups may live on indefinitely and not experience the adjourning stage. To make the most out of the adjourning stage, it is important that there be some guided and purposeful reflection. Many groups celebrate their accomplishments with a party or ceremony. Even groups that had negative experiences or failed to achieve their purpose can still learn something through reflection in the adjourning stage that may be beneficial for future group interactions.

Small Group Communication

refers to interactions among three or more people who are connected through a common purpose, mutual influence, and a shared identity. In this section, we will learn about the characteristics, functions, and types of small groups.

Social Cohesion

refers to the attraction and liking among group members

To Avoid Groupthink, Groups Should

• Divvy up responsibilities between group members so decision-making power isn't in the hands of a few • Track contributions of group members in such a way that each person's input and output is recorded so that it can be discussed • Encourage and reward the expression of minority or dissenting opinions • Allow members to submit ideas prior to a discussion so that opinions aren't swayed by members who propose ideas early in a discussion • Question each major decision regarding its weaknesses and potential negative consequences relative to competing decisions (encourage members to play "devil's advocate") • Have decisions reviewed by an outside party that wasn't involved in the decision-making process • Have a "reflection period" after a decision is made and before it is implemented during which group members can express reservations or second thoughts about the decision

5 Stages of Group Development: Forming

, group members begin to reduce uncertainty associated with new relationships and/ or new tasks through initial interactions that lay the foundation for later group dynamics. Groups return to the forming stage as group members come and go over the life span of a group

Disadvantages of Small Groups

. In some cases, one person can be just as or more effective than a group of people Group interaction also has a tendency to slow down the decision-making process. Individuals connected through a hierarchy or chain of command often work better in situations where decisions must be made under time constraints

Primary Tension

. When the group first comes together, members experience primary tension, which is tension based on uncertainty that is a natural part of initial interactions. It is only after group members begin to "break the ice" and get to know each other that the tension can be addressed and group members can proceed with the forming stage of group development

Tips for Managing Group Conflict

1. Clarify the issue at hand by getting to the historical roots of the problem. Keep in mind that perception leads us to punctuate interactions differently, so it may be useful to know each person's perspective of when, how, and why the conflict began. 2. Create a positive discussion climate by encouraging and rewarding active listening. 3. Discuss needs rather than solutions. Determine each person's needs to be met and goals for the outcome of the conflict before offering or acting on potential solutions. 4. Set boundaries for discussion and engage in gatekeeping to prevent unproductive interactions like tangents and personal attacks. 5. Use "we" language to maintain existing group cohesion and identity, and use "I" language to help reduce defensiveness.

• The five stages of group development include forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.

1. During the forming stage, group members engage in socially polite exchanges to help reduce uncertainty and gain familiarity with new members. Even though their early interactions may seem unproductive, they lay the groundwork for cohesion and other group dynamics that will play out more prominently in later stages. 2. During the storming stage, conflict emerges as group members begin to perform their various roles, have their ideas heard, and negotiate where they fit in the group's structure. Conflict is inevitable and important as a part of group development and can be productive if it is managed properly. 3. During the norming stage, the practices and expectations (norms and rules) of the group are solidified, which leads to more stability, productivity, and cohesion within the group. 4. During the performing stage, group members work relatively smoothly toward the completion of a task or the achievement of their purpose, ideally capitalizing on the synergy that comes from the diverse experiences group members bring to the decision-making process. 5. During the adjourning stage, a group dissolves because its purpose has been met, because membership has declined or the group has lost support, or due to some other internal or external cause. It is important that group

The shared identity of a group manifests in several ways

Groups may have official charters or mission and vision statements that lay out the identity of a group Group identity is often formed around a shared goal and/or previous accomplishments, which adds dynamism to the group as it looks toward the future and back on the past to inform its present can also be exhibited through group names, slogans, songs, handshakes, clothing, or other symbols A key element of the formation of a shared identity within a group is the establishment of the in-group as opposed to the out-group. The degree to which members share in the in-group identity varies from person to person and group to group

Size and structure also affect communication within a group

In terms of size, the more people in a group, the more issues with scheduling and coordination of communication Structure can increase or decrease the flow of communication. Reachability refers to the way in which one member is or isn't connected to other group members. -Circle group structure: -Wheel group structure:

Wheel group structure:

In this structure, Tara is very reachable by all members of the group. This can be a useful structure when Tara is the person with the most expertise in the task or the leader who needs to review and approve work at each step before it is passed along to other group members. But Phillip and Shadow, for example, wouldn't likely work together without Tara being involved Centralized -Research has shown that centralized groups are better than decentralized groups in terms of speed and efficiency -, the person with the most connections, person C, is also more likely to be the leader of the group

Structure of Small Groups

Internal and external influences affect a group's structure. In terms of internal influences, member characteristics play a role in initial group formation External factors such as group size, task, and resources also affect group structure. Some groups will have more control over these external factors through decision making than others. Group structure is also formed through formal and informal network connections. In terms of formal networks, groups may have clearly defined roles and responsibilities or a hierarchy that shows how members are connected. The group itself may also be a part of an organizational hierarchy that networks the group into a larger organizational structure. This type of formal network is especially important in groups that have to report to external stakeholders. These external stakeholders may influence the group's formal network, leaving the group little or no control over its structure Conversely, groups have more control over their informal networks, which are connections among individuals within the group and among group members and people outside of the group that aren't official.

Groups Meet Identity Needs

Our affiliations are building blocks for our identities, because group membership allows us to use reference groups for social comparison—in short, identifying us with some groups and characteristics and separating us from others. Some people join groups to be affiliated with people who share similar or desirable characteristics in terms of beliefs, attitudes, values, or cultural identities. The prestige of a group can initially attract us because we want that group's identity to "rub off" on our own identity. Likewise, the achievements we make as a group member can enhance our self-esteem, add to our reputation, and allow us to create or project certain identity characteristics to engage in impression management

Interdependence

Small groups exhibit this: meaning they share a common purpose and a common fate. If the actions of one or two group members lead to a group deviating from or not achieving their purpose, then all members of the group are affected. Conversely, if the actions of only a few of the group members lead to success, then all members of the group benefit. Although it can be frustrating to have your job, grade, or reputation partially dependent on the actions of others, the interdependent nature of groups can also lead to higher-quality performance and output, especially when group members are accountable for their actions.

Group Pressures

There must be some kind of motivating force present within groups in order for the rules and norms to help govern and guide a group. Without such pressure, group members would have no incentive to conform to group norms or buy into the group's identity and values. Conformity Groupthink

Circle group structure:

each group member is connected to two other members can make coordination easy when only one or two people need to be brought in for a decision. The circle can be a good structure for groups who are passing along a task and in which each member is expected to progressively build on the others' work Decentralized -are more effective at solving complex problems -The circle structure is more likely to emerge in groups where collaboration is the goal and a specific task and course of action isn't required under time constraints

Secondary Tension

emerges after groups have passed the forming stage of group development and begin to have conflict over member roles, differing ideas, and personality conflicts. These tensions are typically evidenced by less reserved and less polite behavior than primary tensions. People also have a lower tolerance threshold for secondary tensions, because rather than being an expected part of initial interaction, these conflicts can be more negative and interfere with the group's task performance. Secondary tensions are inevitable and shouldn't be feared or eliminated. It's not the presence or absence of secondary tension that makes a group successful or not; it's how it handles the tensions when they emerge. A certain level of secondary tension is tolerable, not distracting, and can actually enhance group performance and avoid groupthink. When secondary tensions rise above the tolerance threshold and become distracting, they should be released through direct means such as diplomatic confrontation or indirect means such as appropriate humor or taking a break

Interpersonal Conflict

emerges from conflict between individual members of the group. Whereas procedural conflict deals with how and substantive conflict deals with what, interpersonal conflict deals with who. Such conflict can be completely irrelevant to the functioning or purpose of the group, perhaps focusing instead on personality differences. Interpersonal conflict can be the result of avoided or improperly handled procedural or substantive conflict that festers and becomes personal rather than task focused. This type of conflict can also result from differences in beliefs, attitudes, and values (when such differences are taken personally rather than substantively); different personalities; or different communication styles

Procedural Conflict

emerges from disagreements or trouble with the mechanics of group operations. In this type of conflict, group members differ in their beliefs about how something should be done. Procedural conflict can be handled by a group leader, especially if the leader put group procedures into place or has the individual power to change them If there is no designated leader or the leader doesn't have sole power to change procedures (or just wants input from group members), proposals can be taken from the group on ways to address a procedural conflict to initiate a procedural change. A vote to reach a consensus or majority can also help resolve procedural conflict.

Substantive Conflict

focuses on group members' differing beliefs, attitudes, values, or ideas related to the purpose or task of the group. Rather than focusing on questions of how, substantive conflicts focus on questions of what. Substantive conflicts may emerge as a group tries to determine its purpose or mission Leaders and other group members shouldn't rush to close this type of conflict down To resolve this type of conflict, group members may want to do research to see what other groups have done in similar situations, as additional information often provides needed context for conflict regarding information and ideas. Once the information is gathered, weigh all proposals and try to discover common ground among perspectives.

5 Stages of Group Development: Performing

group members work relatively smoothly toward the completion of a task or achievement of a purpose. Although interactions in the performing stage are task focused, the relational aspects of group interaction provide an underlying support for the group members

Groupthink

is a negative group phenomenon characterized by a lack of critical evaluation of proposed ideas or courses of action that results from high levels of cohesion and/or high conformity pressures When group members fall victim to groupthink, the effect is uncritical acceptance of decisions or suggestions for plans of action to accomplish a task or goal. Two primary causes of groupthink are high levels of cohesion and excessive conformity pressures - When groups exhibit high levels of social cohesion, members may be reluctant to criticize or question another group member's ideas or suggestions for fear that it would damage the relationship -When group members have a high level of task cohesion, they may feel invincible and not critically evaluate ideas

Secondary Groups

which are characterized by less frequent face-to-face interactions, less emotional and relational communication, and more task-related communication than primary groups. While we are more likely to participate in secondary groups based on self-interest, our primary-group interactions are often more reciprocal or other oriented. For example, we may join groups because of a shared interest or need.

Following are some qualities that contribute to a positive group climate and morale

• Participation. Group members feel better when they feel included in discussion and a part of the functioning of the group. • Messages. Confirming messages help build relational dimensions within a group, and clear, organized, and relevant messages help build task dimensions within a group. • Feedback. Positive, constructive, and relevant feedback contribute to group climate. • Equity. Aside from individual participation, group members also like to feel as if participation is managed equally within the group and that appropriate turn taking is used. • Clear and accepted roles. Group members like to know how status and hierarchy operate within a group. Knowing the roles isn't enough to lead to satisfaction, though—members must also be comfortable with and accept those roles. • Motivation. Member motivation is activated by perceived connection to and relevance of the group's goals or purpose.

Key Takeaways

• Task cohesion refers to the degree of commitment of group members to the purpose and activities of the group, and social cohesion refers to the degree of attraction and liking among group members. Group climate refers to the relatively enduring tone and quality of group interaction that is experienced similarly by group members. The degree of each type of cohesion affects the group's climate. Groups can be very close socially but not perform well if they do not have an appropriate level of task cohesion. Groups that are too focused on the task can experience interpersonal conflict or a lack of motivation if the social cohesion, which helps enhance the feeling of interdependence, is lacking. • Group socialization refers to the process of teaching and learning the norms, rules, and expectations associated with group interaction and group member behaviors. Group members are socialized by receiving technical and social information. Cohesion plays a role in socialization, as groups that have high levels of task and social cohesion are more likely to buy into the norms of the group. Socialization continues after a member has joined, as members are officially or unofficially rewarded or punished for adhering to or deviating from the group's norms. • Conformity pressures are an important force behind group socialization. Internal pressures such as an internal drive to be seen as part of the group or to avoid feeling ashamed or guilty for deviating from the group influence behavior and communication. Likewise, external pressures such as group policies and the potential for reward or punishment also play into group dynamics. The pressures toward conformity can manifest in groupthink, which is characterized by a lack of critical evaluation of proposed ideas, a high level of agreement, and a fear of argument. • Groups experience different kinds of conflict, including procedural, substantive, and interpersonal conflict ◦ Procedural conflict emerges from disagreements or trouble with the mechanics of group operations and deal with questions about "how" a group should do something. A leader may be able to resolve this conflict by changing or explaining a procedure or taking, from group members, proposals for or votes on procedural revisions. ◦ Substantive conflict focuses on group members' differing beliefs, attitudes, values, or ideas related to the purpose or task of the group. Leaders and other group members should avoid closing off this type of conflict before people have had a chance to be heard, as a lack of substantive conflict can lead to groupthink. Instead, listen to all viewpoints, try to find common ground, and then weigh and evaluate the information as a group. ◦ Interpersonal conflict emerges from personal conflict between individual members of a group. Manage interpersonal conflict by getting to the root cause of the conflict. In some cases, interpersonal conflict may be disguised as procedural or substantive conflict, or it may develop as a result of poorly managed procedural or substantive conflict. Leaders, group members not directly involved in the conflict, or even outside third parties may also be able to effectively mediate interpersonal conflict.

Cohesion benefits a group in many ways and can be assessed through specific group behaviors and characteristics. Groups with an appropriate level of cohesiveness

• set goals easily; • exhibit a high commitment to achieving the purpose of the group; • are more productive; • experience fewer attendance issues; • have group members who are willing to stick with the group during times of difficulty; • have satisfied group members who identify with, promote, and defend the group; • have members who are willing to listen to each other and offer support and constructive criticism; and • experience less anger and tension.

• Small groups serve several functions as they meet instrumental, interpersonal, and identity needs.

◦ Groups meet instrumental needs, as they allow us to pool resources and provide access to information to better help us survive and succeed. ◦ Groups meet interpersonal needs, as they provide a sense of belonging (inclusion), an opportunity to participate in decision making and influence others (control), and emotional support. ◦ Groups meet identity needs, as they offer us a chance to affiliate ourselves with others whom we perceive to be like us or whom we admire and would like to be associated with.

• Several characteristics influence small groups, including size, structure, interdependence, and shared identity.

◦ In terms of size, small groups must consist of at least three people, but there is no set upper limit on the number of group members. The ideal number of group members is the smallest number needed to competently complete the group's task or achieve the group's purpose. ◦ Internal influences such as member characteristics and external factors such as the group's size, task, and access to resources affect a group's structure. A group's structure also affects how group members communicate, as some structures are more centralized and hierarchical and other structures are more decentralized and equal. ◦ Groups are interdependent in that they have a shared purpose and a shared fate, meaning that each group member's actions affect every other group member. ◦ Groups develop a shared identity based on their task or purpose, previous accomplishments, future goals, and an identity that sets their members apart from other groups.

• There are various types of groups, including task-oriented, relational-oriented, primary, and secondary groups, as well as teams.

◦ Task-oriented groups are formed to solve a problem, promote a cause, or generate ideas or information, while relational-oriented groups are formed to promote interpersonal connections. While there are elements of both in every group, the overall purpose of a group can usually be categorized as primarily task or relational oriented. ◦ Primary groups are long-lasting groups that are formed based on interpersonal relationships and include family and friendship groups, and secondary groups are characterized by less frequent interaction and less emotional and relational communication than in primary groups. Our communication in primary groups is more frequently other oriented than our communication in secondary groups, which is often self-oriented. ◦ Teams are similar to task-oriented groups, but they are characterized