Chapter 13 T's & Q's

Huguenots

A Huguenot is a Reformed member of a French Protestant denomination with origins in the 16th or 17th centuries. Historically, Huguenots were French Protestants inspired by the writings of John Calvin in the 1530's, who became known by that originally derisive designation by the end of the 16th century. The majority of Huguenots endorsed the Reformed tradition of Protestantism. The Huguenot community reached as much as 10% of the French population on the eve of the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, declining to 7-8% by the end of the 16th century, and further after heavy persecution began once again with the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV of France.

Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants

Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants is a piece written by Martin Luther, related to the German Peasants' War. Beginning in 1524 and ending in 1526, the Peasants' War was a result of a tumultuous collection of grievances in many different spheres: political, economic, social, and theological. Martin Luther is often considered to be the foundation for the Peasants' Revolt; however, he maintained allegiance to the Princes against the violence of the rebels. Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants symbolizes Luther's reaction to the Peasants' War, and alludes to Luther's concern that he might be seen to be responsible for their rebellion.

Anne Boleyn

Anne Boleyn was Queen of England from 1533 to 1536 as the second wife of King Henry VIII, and Marquess of Pembroke in her own right. Henry's marriage to Anne, and her subsequent execution by beheading, made her a key figure in the political and religious upheaval that was the start of the English Reformation.

What reforms did the Catholic Church make, and how did it respond to Protestant reform movements?

As Martin Luther preached to leaders of the divided Germany, the Catholic Church tried to retain members through more accurate practices and less taxation, but it's doctrines were almost considered obsolete to that of Protestants because Protestants could do things like divorce, and their rules were less strict. The Catholic Church struggled greatly with the loss of it's greatest source of income, and as a result, they had to "downgrade" and close churches, thus, making their influence even weaker.

Catherine of Aragon

Catherine of Aragon was the Queen of England from 1509 until 1533 as the first wife of King Henry VIII; she was previously Princess of Wales as the wife of his elder brother Arthur. The daughter of Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, Catherine was three years old when she was betrothed to Prince Arthur, heir apparent to the English throne. They married in 1501, and Arthur died five months later. In 1507, she held the position of ambassador for the Spanish Court in England, becoming the first female ambassador in European history. For six months in 1513, she served as regent of England while Henry VIII was in France. During that time the English won the Battle of Flodden, an event in which Catherine played an important part.

Charles V (HRE)

Charles V was ruler of both the Spanish Empire from 1516 and the Holy Roman Empire from 1519, as well as of the Netherlands from 1506. He voluntarily stepped down from these and other positions by a series of abdications between 1554 and 1556. Through inheritance, he brought together under his rule extensive territories in western, central, and southern Europe, and the Spanish colonies in the Americas and Asia. As a result, his domains spanned about one and a half million square miles and were the first to be described as "the empire on which the sun never sets".

Politiques

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, politiques were those in a position of power who put the success and well-being of their state above all else. During the Wars of Religion, this included moderates of both religious faiths (Huguenots and Catholics) who held that only the restoration of a strong monarchy could save France from total collapse, as rulers would often overlook religious differences in order to have a strong country. References to individuals as politique often had a pejorative connotation of moral or religious indifference. The concept gained great currency after 1568 with the appearance of the radical Catholic League calling for the eradication of Protestantism in France, and by 1588 the politiques were seen by detractors as an organized group and treated as worse than heretics.

Elizabeth I

Elizabeth I was Queen of England and Ireland from 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, the childless Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, his second wife, who was executed two and a half years after Elizabeth's birth. Anne's marriage to Henry VIII was annulled, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. Her half-brother, Edward VI, ruled until his death in 1553, bequeathing the crown to Lady Jane Grey and ignoring the claims of his two half-sisters, Elizabeth and the Roman Catholic Mary, in spite of statute law to the contrary. Edward's will was set aside and Mary became queen, deposing Lady Jane Grey. During Mary's reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels.

How did the political situation in Germany shape the course of the Reformation?

Germany didn't have a strong centralized government, and this basically gave the church full power over the people. The church heavily taxed the people and churches there were almost fake; none of the priests were literate and they didn't know what prayers meant. This pushed people to take action to reform the church. Many educated people even wrote books about how the Catholic church was incorrect and a reformation was in order.

Henry of Navarre/Henry IV

Henry IV, also known by the epithet "Good King Henry", was King of Navarre from 1572 to 1610 and King of France from 1589 to 1610. He was the first French monarch of the House of Bourbon, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. Baptized as a Catholic but raised in the Protestant faith by his mother Jeanne d'Albret, Queen of Navarre, he inherited the throne of Navarre in 1572 on the death of his mother. As a Huguenot, Henry was involved in the French Wars of Religion, barely escaping assassination in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, and later led Protestant forces against the royal army.

Henry VIII

Henry VIII was King of England from 1509 until his death. He was the first English King of Ireland, and continued the nominal claim by English monarchs to the Kingdom of France. Henry was the second monarch of the Tudor dynasty; his father, Henry VII. Henry is known for his consequential role in the separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church, as well as his effort to obtain an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, which led to conflict with the Pope. His disagreements with the Pope led Henry to separate the Church of England from papal authority, with himself as king and as the Supreme Head of the Church of England; the disputes also led to the Dissolution of the Monasteries. His principal dispute was with papal authority rather than with doctrinal matters, and he remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachings despite his excommunication from the Roman Catholic Church. Henry oversaw the legal union of England and Wales with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. He is also well known for a long personal rivalry with both Francis I of France and Charles V, with whom he frequently warred. He also had six wives.

Ignatius of Loyola

Ignatius of Loyola was a Spanish knight from a local Basque noble family, hermit, priest since 1537, and theologian, who founded the Society of Jesus and became its first Superior General. Ignatius emerged as a religious leader during the Catholic Reformation. Loyola's devotion to the Catholic Church was characterized by absolute obedience to the Pope.

Indulgence

In the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, an indulgence is "a way to reduce the amount of punishment one has to undergo for sins" which may reduce either or both of the penance required after a sin has been forgiven, or after death, the temporal punishment, in the state or process of purification called Purgatory. These were sold by unethical priests during the 1400's.

Johann Tetzel

Johann Tetzel was a Roman Catholic German, Dominican friar and preacher. He was a Grand Inquisitor of Heresy in Poland, and later became the Grand Commissioner for indulgences in Germany. He was reputedly known for granting indulgences in exchange for money, a position heavily challenged by Martin Luther.

John Calvin

John Calvin was an influential French theologian and pastor during the Protestant Reformation. He created the system of Christian theology later called Calvinism, aspects of which include the doctrine of predestination and the absolute sovereignty of God in salvation of the human soul from death and eternal damnation. In these areas Calvin was influenced by the Augustinian tradition. Various Congregational, Reformed and Presbyterian churches, which look to Calvin as the chief expositor of their beliefs, have spread throughout the world. He also had a very large beard.

John Knox

John Knox was a Scottish clergyman, theologian, and writer who was a leader of the Protestant Reformation and is considered the founder of the Presbyterian denomination in Scotland. He is believed to have been educated at the University of St. Andrews and worked as a notary-priest. Influenced by early church reformers such as George Wishart, he joined the movement to reform the Scottish church. He was caught up in the ecclesiastical and political events that involved the murder of Cardinal Beaton in 1546 and the intervention of the regent of Scotland Mary of Guise. He was taken prisoner by French forces the following year and exiled to England on his release in 1549.

Martin Luther

Martin Luther was a German professor of theology, composer, priest, monk and a seminal figure in the Protestant Reformation. Luther came to reject several teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money, proposing an academic discussion of the practice and efficacy of indulgences in his Ninety-five Theses of 1517.

Mary Tudor

Mary I was the Queen of England and Ireland from 1553 until her death. Her executions of Protestants led to the common name "Bloody Mary". She was the only child of Henry VIII and his first wife Catherine of Aragon to survive to adulthood. Her younger half-brother Edward VI succeeded their father in 1547. When Edward became mortally ill in 1553, he attempted to remove Mary from the line of succession because of religious differences. In 1554, Mary married Philip of Spain, becoming queen consort of Habsburg Spain on his accession in 1556.

Mary Queen of Scots

Mary, Queen of Scots, also known as Mary Stuart or Mary I of Scotland, was Queen of Scotland from 1542 to 1567 and Queen of France from 1559 to 1560. Mary, the only surviving legitimate child of King James V of Scotland, was six days old when her father died and she acceded to the throne. She spent most of her childhood in France while Scotland was ruled by regents, and in 1558, she married the Dauphin of France, Francis. He ascended the French throne as King Francis II in 1559, and Mary briefly became queen consort of France, until his death in 1560. Four years later, she married her first cousin, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, but their union was unhappy. In 1567, his residence was destroyed by an explosion, and Darnley was found murdered in the garden.

Anticlericalism

Peasants that opposed clericalism or to the influence of the clergy in church matters. Priests and church officials were opposed because of illiterate, hypocritical priests and people holding more than one office in the church system.

Phillip II of Spain

Philip II of Spain, called "el Prudente", was King of Spain, King of Portugal, and as Philip I, King of Naples and Sicily; during his marriage to Queen Mary I King of England and Ireland. He was also Duke of Milan. From 1555, he was lord of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands. Known in Spain as "Felipe el Prudente" ('"Philip the Prudent'"), his empire included territories on every continent then known to Europeans, including his namesake the Philippine Islands. During his reign, Spain reached the height of its influence and power. This is sometimes called the Golden Age. The expression, "the empire on which the sun never sets," was coined during Philip's time to reflect the extent of his dominion.

Protestant

Protestantism is a form of Christian faith and practice which originated with the Protestant Reformation; a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German princes in 1529 against an edict condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical.

What were the central ideas of the reformers? Why were they appealing to different social groups?

Reformers simply wanted change in the Catholic Church. They wanted a new system in the Catholic Church in which all priests were educated and were paid fairly. They did not like that the church had taxes on everyone, and they normally only made one person rich. These ideas appealed to many different people because piety was very high at that time, and everybody wanted a good place to worship.

Book of Common Prayer

The Book of Common Prayer is the short title of a number of related prayer books used in the Anglican Communion. The original book, published in 1549, in the reign of Edward VI, was a product of the English Reformation following the break with Rome. Prayer books, unlike books of prayers, contain the words of structured services of worship. The work of 1549 was the first prayer book to include the complete forms of service for daily and Sunday worship in English. It contained Morning Prayer, Evening Prayer, the Litany, and Holy Communion and also the occasional services in full: the orders for Baptism, Confirmation, Marriage, 'prayers to be said with the sick' and a Funeral service. Old Testament and New Testament readings for daily prayer were specified in tabular format as were the Psalms; and canticles, mostly biblical, that were provided to be said or sung between the readings.

Holy Office

The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith is the oldest among the nine congregations of the Roman Curia. It was founded to defend the church from heresy; today, it is the body responsible for defending Catholic doctrine. Formerly known as the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition, it is informally known in many Catholic countries as the Holy Office. Currently, the Palace of the Holy Office is located in Rome and is property of Vatican City.

Council of Trent

The Council of Trent, held between 1545 and 1563 in Trent and Bologna, northern Italy, was one of the Roman Catholic Church's most important councils. Prompted by the Protestant Reformation, it has been described as the embodiment of the Catholic Reformation. Four hundred years later, when Pope John XXIII initiated preparations for the Second Vatican Council (Vatican II), he affirmed the decrees it had issued: "What was, still is."

Catholic Reformation

The Counter-Reformation or the Catholic Reformation , was the period of Catholic resurgence initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation, beginning with the Council of Trent and ending at the close of the Thirty Years' War. The Catholic Reformation was a comprehensive effort composed of four major elements: Ecclesiastical or structural reconfiguration Religious orders Spiritual movements Political dimensions Reforms included the foundation of seminaries for the proper training of priests in the spiritual life and the theological traditions of the Church, the reform of religious life by returning orders to their spiritual foundations, and new spiritual movements focusing on the devotional life and a personal relationship with Christ.

Edict of Nantes

The Edict of Nantes, signed in 1598 by King Henry IV of France, granted the Calvinist Protestants of France (Huguenots) substantial rights in the nation, which was still considered essentially Catholic at the time. In the edict, Henry aimed primarily to promote civil unity. The edict separated civil from religious unity, treated some Protestants for the first time as more than mere schismatics and heretics, and opened a path for secularism and tolerance. In offering general freedom of conscience to individuals, the edict offered many specific concessions to the Protestants, such as amnesty and the reinstatement of their civil rights, including the right to work in any field or for the state and to bring grievances directly to the king. It marked the end of the religious wars that had afflicted France during the second half of the 16th century.

French Religious Wars

The French Wars of Religion is the name of a period of civil and military operations, primarily fought between French Catholics and Protestants. The conflict involved the factional disputes between the aristocratic houses of France, such as the House of Bourbon and House of Guise, and both sides received assistance from foreign sources.

Compare and contrast the political consequences of the spread of Protestant ideas in the Netherlands and France.

The Netherlands and France were the first places outside of Germany to experience Protestantism. While many people in the Netherlands and France liked the idea of not being part of the catholic church, the governments did not accept this new religion because they both had strong ties with the Catholic Church. By this time, the French government practically owned almost half of the Catholic church with the ability to appoint bishops and abbots. The governments were not happy with people leaving the Catholic Church, and many times rebellions would end in bloodshed.

The Peace of Augsburg

The Peace of Augsburg was a temporary settlement within the Holy Roman Empire of the religious conflict arising from the Reformation. Each prince was to determine whether Lutheranism or Roman Catholicism was to prevail in his lands. Dissenters were allowed to emigrate, and the free cities were obligated to allow both Catholics and Lutherans to practice their religions. Under a provision termed the ecclesiastic reservation, the archbishops, bishops, and abbots who had become Protestant after 1552 were to forfeit their offices and incomes.

Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis

The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis was signed between Henry II of France and Philip II of Spain on April 3rd, 1559, at Le Cateau-Cambrésis at the end of the Italian War. Under its terms, France restored Piedmont and Savoy to the Duke of Savoy, and Corsica to the Republic of Genoa, but retained Saluzzo, Calais and the Three Bishoprics: Metz, Toul, and Verdun. Spain retained Franche-Comté, but, more importantly, the treaty confirmed its direct control of Milan, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, and the State of Presidi. The Pope was also their natural ally. The only truly independent entities on Italian soil were Savoy and the Republic of Venice. Spanish control of Italy lasted until the early eighteenth century.

Peasants Revolt

The Peasants' Revolt, also called the Great Rising, was a major uprising across large parts of England in 1381. The revolt had various causes, including the socio-economic and political tensions generated by the Black Death in the 1340's, the high taxes resulting from the conflict with France during the Hundred Years' War, and instability within the local leadership of London. The final trigger for the revolt was the intervention of a royal official, John Bampton, in Essex in May 1381. His attempts to collect unpaid poll taxes in Brentwood ended in a violent confrontation, which rapidly spread across the south-east of the country.

Jesuits

The Society of Jesus is a male religious congregation of the Catholic Church. The members are called Jesuits. Jesuits work in education , intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Ignatius of Loyola founded the society after being wounded in battle and experiencing a religious conversion. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ. In 1534, Ignatius and six other young men, including Francis Xavier and Peter Faber, gathered and professed vows of poverty, chastity, and later obedience, including a special vow of obedience to the Pope in matters of mission direction and assignment.

Union of Utrecht

The Union of Utrecht was a treaty signed in 1579 in Utrecht, the Netherlands, unifying the northern provinces of the Netherlands, until then under the control of Habsburg, Spain. The Union of Utrecht is regarded as the foundation of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, which was not recognized by the Spanish Empire until the Twelve Years' Truce in 1609. The treaty was signed on 23 January by Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht and the province of Groningen. The treaty was a reaction of the Protestant provinces to the 1579 Union of Arras, in which the southern provinces declared their support for Roman Catholic Spain.

How did protestant ideas and institutions spread beyond German-speaking lands?

The ideas of John Calvin were taught in German and Danish Universities, which were greatly studied. In addition, Henry VIII and his wife, Catherine of Aragon, learned of Protestant churches, and converted to them, along with encouraging their people to join. At the time, the couple had ruled over England and Spanish lands, and many others were influenced by these new ideals.

Witch Hunts

The witch trials in Early Modern Europe came in waves and then subsided. There were trials in the 15th and early 16th centuries, but then the witch scare went into decline, before becoming a major issue again and peaking in the 17th century. What had previously been a belief that some people possessed supernatural ability now became a sign of a pact between the people with supernatural abilities and the devil. To justify the killings, Protestant Christianity and its proxy secular institutions deemed witchcraft as being associated to wild Satanic ritual parties in which there was much naked dancing and cannibalistic infanticide. It was also seen as heresy for going against the first of the ten commandments or as violating divine majesty, not the worldly. Further, scripture specifically decreed that "thou shalt not suffer a witch to live", which many believed.

Thomas Cranmer

Thomas Cranmer was a leader of the English Reformation and Archbishop of Canterbury during the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI and Mary I. He helped build the case for the annulment of Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon, which was one of the causes of the separation of the English Church from union with the Holy See (a church jurisdiction). Along with Thomas Cromwell, he supported the principle of Royal Supremacy, in which the king was considered sovereign over the Church within his realm.

Thomas Cromwell

Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex, was an English lawyer and statesman who served as chief minister to King Henry VIII of England from 1532 to 1540. He was one of the strongest and most powerful advocates of the English Reformation. He helped to engineer an annulment of the king's marriage to Queen Catherine of Aragon so that Henry could lawfully marry Anne Boleyn. Henry failed to obtain the Pope's approval for the annulment in 1534, so Parliament endorsed the king's claim to be Supreme Head of the Church of England, giving him the authority to annul his own marriage. He subsequently charted an evangelical and reformist course for the Church of England.

Ulrich Zwingli

Ulrich Zwingli was a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. Born during a time of emerging Swiss patriotism and increasing criticism of the Swiss mercenary system, he attended the University of Vienna and the University of Basel, a scholarly center of Renaissance humanism. He continued his studies while he served as a pastor; he was influenced by the writings of Erasmus. In 1518, Zwingli became the pastor of the Grossmünster in Zurich where he began to preach ideas on reforming the Catholic Church. In his writings, he noted corruption in the hierarchy, promoted clerical marriage, and attacked the use of images in places of worship. In 1525, he introduced a new communion liturgy to replace the Mass.

What were the causes and consequences of religious violence, including riots, wars, and witch hunts?

Wars, riots, and more violence occurred with the changing of people's religion. As some people wanted to convert to Protestantism, the government and many people felt that the new minority would weaken them as a whole and could actually pose as a threat later on. In all of the hysteria, people rioted, fought, and even claimed others were witches, much like the Salem Witch trials 300 years later. Sadly, the fighting and rioting only led to death and destruction in communities, although people fighting to convert were normally allowed to worship as they wished.