Chapter 14 Cross-cultural Leadership and Diversity

Limitations of Research on Gender Differences

Serious limitations in much of the research on gender differences complicate interpretation of the results. One major problem is the lack of clear definition of gender. In some cases, it refers to anatomical sex (male vs. female), and in others it refers to a set of personal characteristics often associated more with one sex than with another. These conceptions of gender characteristics are not constant across studies, and it is seldom clear how much empirical support exists for strong differences between men and women.

Discourage Intolerance and Discrimination

1. Discourage use of stereotypes to describe people. 2. Identify biased beliefs and role expectations for women or minorities. 3. Challenge people who make prejudiced comments. 4. Speak out to protest against unfair treatment based on prejudice. 5. Take disciplinary action to stop harassment of women or minorities.

Cultural Value Dimensions and Leadership

1. Power Distance 2. Uncertainty avoidance 3. individualism versus collectivism 4. gender egalitarianism 5. performance orientation 6. humane orientation

Encourage Tolerance and Appreciation

1. Set an example in your own behavior of appreciation for diversity. 2. Encourage respect for individual differences. 3. Promote understanding of different values, beliefs, and traditions. 4. Explain the benefits of diversity for the team or organization. 5. Encourage and support others who promote tolerance of diversity.

Theory of Feminine Advantage

A more recent controversy is fueled by claims that women are more likely than men to possess the values and skills necessary for effective leadership in modern organizations. The difference is a result of childhood experiences, parent-child interactions, and socialization practices that reflect cultural sex-role stereotypes and beliefs about gender differences and appropriate occupations for men and women.

Types of Cross-cultural Studies

As in the case of the leadership research conducted within a single culture, much of the cross-cultural research involves leader behavior, skills, and traits. The growing body of cross-cultural research has examined different types of research questions. The most common approach has been to explain the cross-cultural differences in leadership in terms of differences in cultural values.

Explanation of Glass Ceiling

Biased beliefs about the skills and behaviors necessary for effective leadership are one reason for sex-based discrimination. Sex-based discrimination in leadership selection also reflects the influence of popular stereotypes and role expectations for men and women. For a long time, women were assumed to be unable or unwilling to use the masculine behaviors considered essential for leadership behavior. Some laboratory studies found that even when women leaders use masculine behaviors, they are evaluated less favorably than men who use them. However, the effects of gender stereotypes on evaluation of female managers may be overstated in laboratory studies with students.

Importance of Cross-cultural Research

Cross-cultural research on leadership is important for several reasons: Increasing globalization of organizations make it more important to learn about effective leadership in different cultures; Leaders are increasingly confronted with the need to influence people from other cultures; successful influence requires a good understanding of these cultures; and leaders must be able to understand how people from different cultures view them and interpret their actions.

Cross-cultural Research on the Effects of Leader Behavior

Cross-cultural studies also examine differences in the relationship of leadership behavior to outcomes such as subordinate satisfaction and performance. For example, one study found that supportive behavior was significantly related to subordinate satisfaction and leadership effectiveness in the United States but not in Jordan or Saudi Arabia.

Cultural Influences on Leadership Behavior

Cultural values and traditions can influence the attitudes and behavior of managers in a number of different ways. The values are likely to be internalized by managers who grow up in a particular culture, and these values will influence their attitudes and behavior in ways that may not be conscious. In addition, cultural values are reflected in social norms about the way people relate to each other.

Managing Diversity

Diversity can take forms, including differences in race, ethnic identity, age, gender, education, physical appearance, socio-economic level, and sexual orientation. Diversity in the workplace is increasing in the United States and Europe. More women are entering traditionally male jobs, the number of old workers is increasing, and there is more diversity with regard to ethnic, religious, and racial backgrounds. The increasing number of joint ventures, mergers, and strategic alliances is bringing together people from different types of organizations and national cultures.

Uncertainty Avoidance

In cultures with high avoidance of uncertainty, there is more fear of the unknown, and people desire more security, stability, and order. Social norms, tradition, detailed agreements, and certified expertise are more valued, because they offer a way to avoid uncertainty and disorder.

Individualism versus Collectivism

Individualism is the extent to which the needs and autonomy of individuals are more important than the collective needs of groups, organizations, or society. In an individualistic culture, individual rights are more important than social responsibilities, and people are expected to take care of themselves. The implications of collectivistic values depend in part on whether they are more important for in-groups or the larger society, but most of the cross-cultural research has emphasized in-group collectivism. The in-groups may be based on family ties, religious or ethnic background, membership to a political party, or a stable, collaborative business relationship.

Findings in Research on Gender Differences

Many studies have compare men and women leaders with regard to their leadership behavior. Some reviewers conducted that there is no evidence of important gender differences in leadership behavior or skills. Other reviewers concluded that there are gender-related differences for some behaviors or skills in some situations. Many of the early studies on gender differences in leadership behavior involved task and relationship behavior. Eagly and Johnson (1990) conducted a meta-analysis of the gender studies with actual managers and found no gender differences in the use of task-oriented behavior or supportive behavior.

Identifying Causes and Reducing Discrimination

Most studies on gender and leadership are focused on determining if there is a difference between men and women, not on determining the cause of any difference. If the research is able to find differences with both statistical and practical significance, then it is essential to discover the reasons for them. If significant gender differences remain after these biases are removed, then a possible explanation involves biological differences created by evolutionary processes that occurred over thousands of years in primitive times. Another possible explanation is that different treatment during childhood causes men and women to have different values, traits, skills, and ways of dealing with situations.

Cross-cultural Research on Behavior Differences

Much of the cross-cultural research examines differences among countries with regard to typical patterns of leadership behavior. Scores on behavior questionnaires are analyzed to determine whether a type of behavior is used more in one culture or country than another. A small number of cross-cultural studies attempt to identify qualitative differences in the way a specific type of behavior is enacted in each country.

Culture Clusters

The cultural value dimensions are moderately intercorrelated, and examining differences for a single value dimension without controlling for the others makes it difficult to determine their independent effects on leadership beliefs and behavior.

Performance orientation

The extent to which high performance and individual achievement are valued is called performance orientation. Related values and attributes include hard work, responsibility, competitiveness, persistence, initiative, pragmatism, and acquisition of new skills.

Gender Egalitarianism

This dimension is the extent to which men and women receive equal treatment, and both masculine and feminine are considered important and desirable. In cultures with high gender egalitarianism, there is less differentiation of sex roles and most jobs are not segregated by gender.

Humane Orientation

This dimension means a strong concern for the welfare of other people and the willingness to sacrifice one's own self interest to help others. Key values include altruism, benevolence, kindness, compassion, love and generosity.

The GLOBE Project

This project is a cross-cultural study of leadership in 60 different countries representing all major regions of the world. The acronym means "Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness." This project has involved more than 150 researchers in different countries working together in a coordinated, long-term effort.

Fu and Yukl (2000)

This study conducted a cross-cultural study on managers of a multinational company with similar manufacturing facilities in the United States and China. The study used scenarios to assess manager beliefs about the effectiveness of different tactics for influencing people in their organization.

Theories of Male Advantage

Throughout the twentieth century, gender-based discrimination was supported by age-old beliefs that men are more qualified than women for leadership roles. These beliefs involve assumptions about the traits and skills required for effective leadership in organizations, assumptions about inherent differences between men and women, and assumptions about appropriate behavior for men and women.

Sex-based Discrimination

Widespread discrimination is clearly evident in the low number of women who hold important, high-level leadership positions in most types of organizations. The strong tendency to favor men over women in filling high-level leadership positions has been referred as the "glass ceiling."

Schaubroeck, Lam, and Cha (2007)

examined leadership by bank branch managers in the United States and Hong Kong. They found that the transformational leadership of the branch manager was related to branch performance in both countries.

Power Distance

involves the acceptance of an unequal distribution of power and status in organizations and institutions. In high power distance cultures, people expect the leaders to have greater authority and are more likely to comply with rules and directives without questioning or challenging them.