chapter 15 exam 3

Recent regulations have restricted how much power devices can use while in standby, sometimes called

"vampire" power loss

•Only Royal Dutch Shell has attempted to drill in the Arctic, with many mishaps faced:

-Drilling rig ran aground during a storm. -A leak containment dome was crushed during testing. -An icebreaker ran aground and had to be towed for repairs.

•Global climate change has opened many areas of the Arctic to offshore drilling.

-Frigid temperatures, ice floes, winds, waves, and brutal storms make conditions challenging and accidents likely.

•The health and environmental impacts of fossil fuels are external costs that we pay as a society:

-Medical expenses. -Environmental cleanup. -Long-term damage from climate change.

We are extending our reach for fossil fuels in several ways

-Mountaintop mining for coal -Secondary extraction from existing wells -Hydraulic fracturing for oil and gas -Offshore drilling in deep waters -Exploiting new "unconventional" fossil fuel sources

•Carbon capture and storage remains too unproven to be a viable strategy.

-There is no way of knowing if stored carbon will remain underground indefinitely. -Injection could contaminate groundwater supplies or trigger earthquakes. -The process is very energy-intensive and decreases the EROI of coal.

-If demand holds steady or increases when this happens, shortages are likely.

-This scenario is called peak oil with petroleum, because it is likely to occur in the near future.

For example, hydraulic fracturing is allowing us to

-access tight oil confined in or near shale, increasing reserve levels.

impacts of the deepwater horizon spill were many

-brown pelican -coated in oil beach cleanup

Coal-fired power plants use

-coal combustion to convert water to steam, which turns turbines to produce electricity.

Oil and gas wells are being

-drilled deeper and into places that were once unreachable (Arctic seabeds, farther offshore in the ocean, etc).

geothermal energy

-earth's internal heat -renewable

This boom has

-employed thousands, reduced the price of natural gas, and made natural gas a potential replacement for coal in electricity generation.

nuclear energy

-energy from atomic nuclei -nonrenewable

hydropower

-energy from running water -renewable

solar energy

-energy from sunlight directly -renewable

wind energy

-energy from the wind -renewable

ocean energy

-energy from tides and waves -renewable

biomass energy

-energy stored in plant matter -renewable

natural gas

-fossil fuel (gas) -nonrenewable

oil

-fossil fuel (liquid) -nonrenewable

coal

-fossil fuel (solid) -nonrenewable

oil shale occurs

-in areas where deposits were not buried deeply enough to be subjected to enough heat and pressure to form oil.

Clean coal technologies may invovle using

-minerals (calcium, magnesium) that absorb sulfur dioxide or chemical reactions that remove nitrogen oxides.

The more coal is compressed

-the denser its carbon content, and the greater its energy content per unit volume.

Natural gas reserves are estimated to last

53 more years; coal's R/P ratio is about 153 years.

The Pennsylvania DEP eventually fined

Cabot and forced them to have drinking water hauled in from another area

In 1986, an explosion at the

Chernobyl power plant in Ukraine caused radioactive debris to enter the atmosphere for 10 days.

•Energy sources are assessed using EROI (energy returned on investment), which is calculated by:

EROI= energy returned/energy invested

The United States has the greatest nuclear electricity production, but

France is the most dependent on it

An addition segment, called the

Keystone XL pipeline, has been proposed to increase capacity.

Dimock soon had some of the highest-producing wells in the

Marcellus Shale, a massive underground gas-bearing rock formation.

shale gas

Natural gas occurring within or extracted from shale.

peak oil

The point at which half the total known oil supply is used up

Canada sells much of its oil to the United States, so the

TransCanada Corporation has constructed a 2900-mile pipeline to transport the oil to Illinois and Texas refinerie

fossil fuels

a natural fuel such as coal or gas, formed in the geological past from the remains of living organisms.

Oil sands can be extracted through

a process similar to strip mining or by injecting steam and solvents deep into a drilling shaft.

gasification

a process that converts organic or fossil fuel based carbonaceous materials into carbon monoxide, hydrogen and carbon dioxide.

refining

a process that separates the molecules by size.

The refining process produces

a range of petroleum products.

Inside nuclear reactors,

a substance called a moderator (usually water or graphite) will slow down neutrons emitted by fission enough that they will impact other atoms, creating a fission chain reaction

nuclear reactors -heat from fission is

absorbed by water, which is converted to steam that spins a large metal turbine

Oil sands, oil shale, and methane hydrates are

abundant and theoretically could provide centuries of energy.

Hydraulic fracturing,

also called fracking, pumps chemically treated water under high pressure into layers of rock to crack them.

•costs of extraction and market prices.

are both technologically and economically recoverable.

Nuclear reactors

are facilities contained within nuclear power plants where thermal energy is used to generate electricity.

At a typical oil or gas well

as much as two-thirds of a deposit may remain in the ground after primary extraction.

nuclear waste is stored at nuclear power plants,

because no central repository yet exists.

Energy conservation results from

behavioral choices

Three main fossil fuels

coal, oil, natural gas

the united states, Germany, and Japan are among nations that

consume more oil than they extract

Some residents began experiencing

contaminated drinking water, chemical smells wafting from their wells, and in one case, an exploded well.

Oil sands form when

crude oil deposits are partially degraded by bacteria.

High-level radioactive waste from civilian reactors is

currently stored at more than 120 sites in 39 states across the United States.

Fossil fuels are nonrenewable and are being

depleted, so new approaches to extract them, such as hydraulic fracturing, have been developed.

Energy efficiency

describes the ability to obtain a given amount of output while using less energy input.

Fossil fuels have been kept artificially inexpensive

due to government subsides and tex breaks for extraction companies

Radioactivity was released

during and after these events at levels about one-tenth from Chernobyl

The actual nuclear power-generating process is

emission free

After death, these organisms

ended up in an anaerobic environment, where their organic matter was converted by heat and pressure into a fossil fuel.

net energy=

energy returned/energy invested

Over 80% of our

energy use worldwide comes from the three main fossil fuels.

In mountaintop removal mining for coal

entire mountain peaks are leveled and fill is dumped onto adjacent valleys

In the Appalachian Mountains,

entire mountaintops are blown away in a process called mountaintop removal mining.

Petroleum products are

everywhere in are everyday lives

Three Mile Island

experienced an accident due to human error and mechanical failure that led to draining of water from the reactor vessel.

Oil and gas formations are identified through

exploratory drilling of small holes to great depths.

net energy

expresses the difference between energy and energy invested

pollution from shale gas drilling creates

external cost

Shale gas drilling has created

external cost in some communities, such as water contamination with flammable methane

Hydraulic fracturing is used to

extract natural gas trapped in shale deposits deep underground.

Fossil fuel extraction often leads to a

flush of high-paying jobs and economic activity that seems to outweigh any potential environmental cost

Coal is primarily used

for electricity

The United States has diversified its sources of

foreign oil, including unconventional sources like the oil sands in Canada

Sweden has been able to cut its

fossil fuel use in half though the use of nuclear energy

Policymakers have encouraged

fracking, even passing exemptions to major federal laws such as the National Environmental Policy Act and the Safe Drinking Water Act

Petroleum is used as

fuel for vehicles, and petroleum products are found in many household items.

Coal can also be converted through a process called

gasification to a cleaner synthesis gas (called syngas) to make it cleaner burning.

lower energy efficiency indicates a

greater efficiency in electricity use

Carbon dioxide is a

greenhouse gas, and its emission is recognized as the biggest consequence of fossil fuel use

a thermogram reveals

heat loss from buildings

Mountaintop removal mining produces

huge amounts of rock and soil erosion

Crude oil is a mixture of

hundreds of hydrocarbons and must undergo refining,

Blame was placed on

hydraulic fracturing

energy efficiency results from

improved technology

many government see's nuclear power as an

improvement over coal-generated electricity

The majority of oil reserves are located

in the middle East

Carbon capture and storage (CCS)

involves capturing carbon dioxide emissions, converting the gas to a liquid form, and then sequestering (storing) it in the ocean or underground.

Methane hydrate

is a solid consisting of molecules of methane embedded in a crystal lattice of water molecules.

Energy intensity

is the energy use per dollar of gross domestic product (GDP)

Crude oil

is unrefined oil extracted from the ground.

nuclear reactors -containment buildings prevents

leaks of radioactivity

Oil sands specifically have become a

major source of debate due to their environmental impacts.

the three mile island caused a

meltdown, where the fuel rods melted and began releasing high amounts of radiation

In general, industrialized countries consume

more fossil fuel than less industrialized countries.

secondary extraction is a

much more expansive process than primary extraction

The United States now receives most of its imported oil from

non-OPEC nations and from non-Middle-Eastern nations.

The reaction that drives the release of nuclear energy inside nuclear reactors is

nuclear fission - the splitting apart of atomic nuclei

nuclear fission drives modern

nuclear power

Crises in this region can dramatically affect

oil prices and supplies

New resources, such as

oil sands, are also being tapped.

Deep-water drilling technology has

outpaced our ability to deal with accidents, as shown by the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010.

Each fossil fuel has its

own mix of uses

The enriched uranium is formed into

pellets of uranium oxide, which are placed into metallic tubes called fuel rods.

Gains in efficiency may be offset if

people engage in more energy-consuming behavior as a result and this is called rebound effect and in some cases may completely erase efficiency gains.

Americans use far more energy

per person that people in most other nations

Methane is also a

potent greenhouse gas

Surface coal is primarily

primarily extracted through strip mining

In a pressurized light water reactor (the most common type of nuclear reactor),

radioactive uranium fuel rods heat water, and steam turns turbines and generators to generate electricity.

Eventually, extraction of any nonrenewable resource will reach a peak and then decline

reach a peak and then decline

The use of natural gas instead of coal has

reduced carbon dioxide emissions from electricity generation.

Clean coal technologies

refer to an array of techniques, equipment, and approaches that aim to remove chemical contaminants during the generation of electricity from coal

The U.S. EPA's Energy Star program labels

refrigerators, dishwashers, and other appliances for their efficiency

Spills and pollution are always risky

regardless of how oil is transported

Mountaintop removal mining

removes entire mountaintops to access the coal seams running through them

Gas companies do not have to

report what chemical additives they use in fracking or test for toxic chemicals present in wastewater.

Emissions from fossil fuel combustion have

risen dramatically as nations have industrialized and as population and consumption have grown.

natural gas also

rises to the surface and is collected

Methane hydrate is found in

sediments in the arctic and ocean floor

water, sand, and chemicals are pumped in, crating fractures in the shale and releasing bubbles of

shale gas

In secondary extraction

solvents, water, or steam is injected into the well to force the remaining oil or gas out by pressure

Three large nuclear accidents have

spawned public anxiety over nuclear power and limited its proliferation

The separated products of refining are

specialized fuels for heating, cooking, and transportation and are also used to make lubricating oils, asphalts, and other petrochemical products.

In 1973, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) resolved to

stop selling oil to the united states, creating and energy crisis

Currently, nuclear waste from power generation is being

stored in pools of cooling ponds or thick casks of steel, lead, and concrete

Developing countries tend to use energy for

subsistence activities, while developed countries use it for transportation, industry, and other uses.

Many nations lack adequate fossil fuel reserves to

supply their own energy needs and therefore rely on imports

Directional drilling

technology allows drillers to bore down vertically and then curve to drill horizontally.

hydraulic fracturing is a

technology that involves drilling deep into the earth and angling the drill horizontally once the shale formation is reached

At the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant,

the earthquake shut down power and the tsunami flooded its backup generators that powered the control rods and water pumps.

In response to public outcry,

the oil and gas industry is beginning to reuse wastewater, thus reducing water use.

strip mining

the removal of strips of soil and rock to expose ore

rebound effect

the tendency of a thought to return to consciousness with greater frequency following suppression

When plants and other organisms die and are buried in sediments under particular conditions,

their stored chemical energy may eventually be incorporated into fossil fuels, such as oil, coal, and natural gas

Enormous amounts of energy, money, and technology are now being used

to extend our reach for fossil fuels

Humanity has devised many ways to

to harness the renewable and nonrenewable forms of energy available on our planet.

The proposed pipeline has led to

to protests, as it would prolong fossil fuel dependence in the United States

Directional drilling allows drillers

to reach a large radius around each drill pad without constructing additional drill pads

Improved design and insulation can also help

to reduce heat loss from buildings

The explosion at BP's Deepwater Horizon drilling platform in 2010

unleashed the world's largest accidental oil spill

Petroleum

usually refers to oil but may also refer to oil and natural gas collectively.

To reach oil sands

vast areas of forest are cleared, and enormous pits are dug.

Some of the liquids return to the surface as

waterwaste

The world is going to reach peak oil at some point in the near future, raising questions about

what other fuels or technologies will replace it

15.6 Fossil fuels begin to form

when organisms die and end up in oxygen-poor conditions.

The Gulf region suffered a range of impacts from the Deepwater Horizon spill, including

wildlife destruction and a disruption of beach tourism

The U.S. EPA eventually stepped in and found that

•5 out of 64 tested water wells were contaminated, but Cabot was addressing the issue.

Unconventional" fossil fuels

•are not yet used widely.

The economically recoverable portion of the fuel depends on

•costs of extraction and market prices.

Fracking has become a major

•debate in states above the Marcellus Shale deposit, as it creates many jobs but drew down water resources and, in some cases, polluted water.

Oil and natural gas are

•derived from marine plankton that died, sank to the sea bottom, became buried, and were transformed by time, heat, and pressure.

Energy conservation

•describes the practice of reducing wasteful or unnecessary energy use.

Most of the Earth's energy comes from the sun, which

•drives wind, the water cycle, and photosynthesis.

Subsurface mining

•excavates large tunnels underground.

Roughly 35% of the oil and 10% of the natural gas

•extracted in the United States today comes from offshore sites, such as the Gulf of Mexico and coastal California.

Ratios rise when

•extraction becomes easier or more efficient and decrease when resources become depleted and harder to extract.

Natural gas is used for

•for electricity generation, heat, and cooking.

Coal is a

•hard, blackish substance formed from woody organic matter compressed into a dense, solid, carbon structure.

Another pipeline project, the Dakota Access Pipeline

•has faced protests because it would be built through the Standing Rock Indian Reservation.

Harvesting energy requires the use of

•heavy machinery, construction of roads, pipeline, waste ponds, storage tanks, and more—all requiring investments of energy.

Fossil fuels were formed

•hundreds of millions of years ago, from organisms performing photosynthesis.

Natural gas

•is a gas consisting primarily of methane (CH4) and other volatile hydrocarbons.

Cogeneration

•is a process in which excess heat produced during the generation of electricity is captured and used to heat nearby workplaces and homes and to produce other kinds of power.

Oil shale

•is sedimentary rock filled with organic matter that can be processed into shale oil.

Nuclear energy

•is the energy that holds together protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

Nuclear power

•is the use of nuclear energy to generate electricity.

Burning fossil fuels alters the carbon cycle, as

•long-term reservoirs of carbon are liberated and converted to carbon dioxide.

Oil sands are a

•mixture of moist sand and clay containing 1-20% bitumen, a thick and heavy form of petroleum.

Uranium is mined from

•naturally occurring ore, which must be refined and reprocessed until at least 3% of the sample is uranium-235.

Three Mile Island was considered a

•near-miss, because the fuel rods did not completely melt down and the radiation was contained.

The actual amount of years we have left could change if

•our demand, production, or known reserve levels change.

Cabot Oil and Gas offered many of the residents of Dimock, Pennsylvania,

•royalty money in exchange for drilling rights to the natural gas extracted from their land.

The proportions of fuels that are physically accessible to us are called

•technologically recoverable portions.

nuclear reactors -If uncontrolled

•the fission chain reaction can become a runaway process of positive feedback, creating the explosive power of a nuclear bomb.

Fracking greatly boosts

•the natural gas that can be extracted from a rock formation, igniting a boom in U.S. gas production.

Since fossil fuels are nonrenewable

•the total amount available on Earth declines as we use them.

A debate erupted in the

•town between residents whose wells were impacted and other residents, who felt the benefits outweighed the risks.

We use fossil fuels for

•transportation, manufacturing, heating, cooking, and generating electricity.

Radioactive isotopes, such as

•uranium-235, emit subatomic particles and high-energy radiation as they decay into lighter radioisotopes until they ultimately become stable isotopes.