Chapter 17: Evolution of Plant & Fungal Diversity

Angiosperms & Pollen: What % of angiosperms have animals transfer their pollen? Examples of pollinators? What are pollinators searching for?

*1. 90% *2. Pollinators: Birds, Bats, Insects (BEES! Also butterflies and moths) *Pollinators are in search of a meal, which is provided by the flower in the of nectar, high-energy fluid

Plant Life Cycle: Describe the 5 stages in the plant life cycle

*1. A single-celled spore divides by mitosis and develops into a multicellular gametophyte *2. The haploid gametophyte produces haploid gametes (egg and sperm) by mitosis *3. A sperm fertilizes an egg, resulting in a diploid zygote *4. The single-celled zygote divides by mitosis and develops into a multicellular sporophyte *5. The sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis (And then this whole process starts over again)

Plant Reproduction: 1. In bryophytes, what is the dominant phase? 2. Are gametophytes haploid or diploid? What can you see? 3. Are sporophytes haploid or diploid? What CAN'T you see?

*1. Bryophytes = Gametophyte is the dominant phase *2. Gametophytes = n (Haploid). You can see, it's the green part *3. Sporophytes = 2n (Diploid). You can't really see them from the eye

Reproduction & Dispersal: 1. What is a slight advantage that algae have and plants do not? 2. Gametes are produced in what structures? Why can mosses and ferns reproduce in a moist environment?

*1. For algae, the water ensures the gametes will stay moist. However, plants must keep their embryos from drying out *2. Mosses and Ferns produce gametes in M & F structures called gametangia (singular-gametangium)- consist of protective jacket of cells surrounding the gamete producing cells. ---Eggs remains in female gametangium and is fertilized by sperm that swims through a film of water ---Thus, mosses and ferns can reproduce in a moist environment

What other adaptations do flowers have that improve pollen transfer once pollinators arrive?

*1. Location of nectar- Some of the pollen the bee picks up will rub off onto next flower it visits *2. Nectar can only be reached by pollinators with long tongues, such as butterflies, birds, etc.

Life Cycle of Flowering Plant:

*1. Meiosis in the anthers of flower produces haploid spores that undergo mitosis and forms the male gametophytes, or pollen grains *2. Meiosis in the ovule produces a haploid spre that undergoes mitosis and forms a few cells of female gametophyte, one becomes an egg *3. Pollination occurs when a pollen grain lands on the stigma. *4. Then, a tube grows from the pollen grain to the ovule. The sperm fertilizes the egg, forming a zygote

When is pollination effective? Is it easy for pollinators to learn how to extract nectar from flowers? 3. When will a pollinator be the most successful at getting the nectar?

*1. Only effective if the pollen transfer occurs b/w members of the same species (Unfortunate cause few animals visit only one species of flowers) *2. No, It takes time, plus trial and error, for pollinators to learn how to extract nectar from flowers. Some insects can only learn 1 technique at a time *3. Pollinators will be most successful if they visit another flower with the same cue to use the technique they mastered to get the nectar

Reproduction & Dispersal: Who has pollen grains? What are pollen grains? Do pollen grains need moisture? Why or why not?

*1. Pines & Flowering Plants have pollen grains- structures that contain the sperm-producing cells *2. Pollen grains are carried close to the egg by wind or animals; moisture is NOT required for bringing sperm and egg together

Plants & Body Support: Because air provides less support than water, what do plants have to do? 2. What is lignin?

*1. Plants must be able to hold themselves up against the pull of gravity *2. The cell walls of some plant tissues are thickened and reinforced by lignin (This is another limitation for mosses w/ non-vascular tissue)

Moss Life Cycle: Please describe the 6 stages in the Moss Life Cycle

*1.A single-celled spore divides by mitosis and develops into a multicellular gametophyte *2. The gametangium in a male gametophyte produces sperm. This sperm swims to female gametangium in water *3. The gametangium in a female gametophyte produces an egg *4. A sperm fertilizes the egg, producing a diploid zygote *5. The single-celled zygote divides by mitosis and develops into a multicellular sporophyte (Note: Sporophyte can't photosynthesize) *6. The sporophyte produces spores in the sporangium (Process starts all over again)

Fern Life Cycle: Please describe the stages in the fern life cycle

*1.A single-celled spore divides by mitosis and develops into a multicellular gametophyte *2. The male gametangium produces sperm. This sperm swims to female gametangium in water *3. The female gametangium produces an egg *4. A sperm fertilizes the egg, producing a diploid zygote *5. The single-celled zygote divides by mitosis and develops into a multicellular sporophyte ---The tiny gametophyte soon disintegrates and the sporophyte grows indepedently

Fern Diversity: How many species? How large is this group? The greatest diversity of ferns are found where? What fraction of ferns are epiphytic?

*11,000 Species *Largest group of plants other than flowering plants (angiosperms) *Greatest diversity of ferns found in the tropics *1/3 of all ferns are epiphytic (A plant that lives on another plant)

Carboniferous Period: What 2 plant groups dominated? When did it occur? What was formed during this period?

*2 groups of plants dominated this period: ferns and fern allies *Occurred 360-299 million years ago *Peat formed during this period ----With time (millions of year), peat is cooked and forms coal (fossil fuel)

Evolutionary History of Plants: What are 2 types of SEEDLESS vascular plants?

*2 types of seedless vascular plants: lycophytes (club mosses) and monilophytes (ferns)

Fungal Reproduction Cycle Cont'd: 4. What happens in asexual reproduction?

*3. Zygotes undergo meiosis, producing haploid spores *4. In asexual reproduction, spore-producing structures arise from haploid mycelia that did NOT undergo a heterokaryotic stage OR meiosis

Fungi & Harm to Plants: What % of fungi are parasites or pathogens? Are fungi pests? How so? What % of plant diseases are caused by fungus?

*30% of fungi are parasites or pathogens *Fungi are agricultural pests- Crop field tripically have genetically identical fungi, which are ideal conditions for spread (Bad!) *80% of plant diseases caused by fungus

Carboniferous Period: 1. How long ago was it? 2. What 2 clades of plants made it up? 3. What was the climate like at the time and why? 3. What organisms lived here

*360-299 million years ago *2 clades of vascular plants: lycophytes (mosses) and monilophytes (ferns) grew in the forest *At the time, Continents were close to equator and had more warm,humid climate to support lush growth *Lots of trees, plants, amphibians, reptiles, etc.

Flowering Plant Cont'd:

*5. A seed develops from each ovule. Each seed consists of an emybro surrounded by food and a seed coat *6. As seed develops, the ovary walls thicken, which forms the fruit that encloses the seeds *7. When conditions are favorable, a seed germinates- begins to grow

Fern Cycle Cont'd:

*6. The new sporophyte grows from the gametophyte *7. Sporophyte matures *8. The sporophyte produces spores by meiosis in sporangia

Spore: Define. What are plants that disperse their offspring off as spores known as?

*A cell that can develop into a new organism without fusing with another cell *Plants that disperse their offspring as spores are known as seedless plants

Basidiomycetes: AKA? What are they named for? What do they break down? What 2 destructive parasites does it include?

*AKA Club Fungi *Named for their club-shaped, spore producing structure called basidium *Break down lignin in wood. Are key decomposers *Includes 2 destructive parasites: Rusts and Smuts

Ascomycetes: AKA? What was it named after? Why? Where do they live? How do they range? What sort of devastating feature does it include?

*AKA Sac Fungi *Named for saclike structures called asci that produce spores in sexual reproduction *Live in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats *Range from yeasts to morels and cup fungi *Includes devastating plant pathogens

Land Plants & Maintaining Moisture: 1. What are above ground parts of land plants covered by? Where does CO2 and O2 diffuse? When is the Stomata open and closed?

*Above ground parts of land plants are covered by a waxy cuticle that prevents water loss *CO2 and O2 diffuse through leaf surfaces through tiny pores called stomata *Stomata has surrounding cells that controls the opening and closing. Stomata is open during sunlight hours(allows for gas exchange) and closed during other hours (preventing water loss by evaporation)

Peat Process: What is peat? What happens to the moisture in plants? What is the result of that? What is carbon used for?

*Accumulated, compressed plant material *Moisture in plants gets squished out of it *Carbon comes from this. (How carbon is formed) *Used fuel for homes and industry heating

Fungi & Ecological Benefits: What can fungi consume almost any of? What can they break down/eat through?

*Almost any organic (carbon-containing) substance can be consumed by Fungi *Can break down DDT and chemicals that cause cancer. Also can eat through clothes, tents, etc.

Algae: 1. What are they anchored by? 2. Do they have tissues and what supports them? 3. What do they get from the water? 4. Can they perform photosynthesis? 5. How does reproduction work?

*Anchored by a holdfast *Have no rigid tissue structure and are supported by surrounding water *Algal body obtains CO2 and mineral from water *Receive light and can perform photosynthesis *For reproduction, the flagellated sperm swim to a fertilize egg. The offspring are dispersed by the water

Angiosperms & Fruit: What is the fruit like while the seeds are developed and when the fruit is ripe? What happens when an organisms eats a fruit?

*Angiosperms produce fruit. They are green while the seeds are developing, which camouflages them. When ripe, the fruit turns a bright color *When an organism eats a fruit, it eats the fleshy part of the fruit while most of the seed stays intact. The organism, bird, will disperse the seed

Adapations to Land: What does the Apical Meristem do?

*Apical Meristem ---Cellular development at the tips due to apical meristem

Fungi & Ecological Benefits: How are fungi as symbiotic partners? What are fungi and prokaryotes important role? What happens if they stop doing this important role?

*As symbiotic partners, fungi supply nutrients to plants *Fungi & prokaryotes are important decomposers- they break down organic matter and restock the environment w/ nutrients for plant growth *If fungi and prokaryotes stop decomposing, dead organisms would pile up and plants + herbivores would stave cause soils wouldn't be restocked with nutrients

Caboniferous Period: What happened as the temperature began to drop? (Think glaciers, climate, swamp, forest, seed plants)

*As temps dropped later in this period, glaciers formed *Global climate became drier *Swamps and forest began to disappear *Now early seed plants would begin to appear (Because they were wind dispersed)

Carbon Dioxide: As CO2 was removed, what happened?

*As the CO2 was removed, the temperatures cooled *As it cooled, the air became drier and allow the evolution of seed plants

Flower Make-Up: Base of flower? Petals? Stamens? Anther? Carpel? Ovary?

*At base of flower, outer layer consists of sepals, which are green *Petals- Conspicious and attract animal pollinators *Stamens- Revealed once you pick off the petals *Anther- a sac at the top of each filament, contains male sporangia and will eventually release pollen *Carpel- At center of flower. Female reproductive structure: includes the stigma, style, and ovary *Ovary- A unique angiosperm adaptation that encloses the ovules

Land Plants: Challenge's Cont'd: What did plants have to do because they are immobile

*Because they're immobile, they had anchor their bodies in the soil AND obtain resources from the soil and air

Fungi Uses: How has fungi been useful to us?

*Can be eaten- Blue Cheese, Truffles, and yeast used to make alcoholic beverages *Some fungi can be used to produce antibiotics *First antibiotic discovered- penicillin, was made by a mold *Used in research in molecular biology and biotechnology *Fungi may play a role in production of future biofuel from plants (Fungi will digest toughest parts of plants & use that in biofuel)

Zygomycetes: What are they characterized by? What does it include? Are the parasites?

*Characterized by protective zygosporangium- where zygotes produce haploid spores by meiosis *Includes: Fasting growing molds (Black Bread) and molds that produce peaches, strawberries and sweet potatoes *SOME parasitize animals

Carboniferous Period: 1. What was greatly created during this period? Why is coal, oil, and natural gas called fossil fuels? What does oil and natural gas orginate? What has been happening the Industrial Revolution w/ coal?

*Coal deposits from this period are the most extensive ever formed *Coal, oil, and natural gas are called fossil fuels because they were formed from the remains of ancient organisms (Oil and natural gas was from marine organisms) *Since Industrial Revolution, coal has been a big source for energy, but burning all of that coal is releasing greenhouse gases and causing global warming

Fungi & Harm to Plants: Common fungi pests on grain crops? What us Huitlacoche? What are Ergots?

*Common fungi pests on grain crops: Smuts & Rusts *Huitlacoche- Food dish derived from infected corn. Has lots of nutrients and gourmets pay a lot for infected corn now... *Ergots- Fungal growth that infects rye, wheats, and oats. They're VERY toxic- causes lots of health problems (Spasms, death, etc.)

Fruits & Our Needs: Examples of dry and fleshy fruits. What spices come from plants?

*Corn, rice, wheat, and other grains are dry fruits *Apples, cherries, oranges, tomatoes, squashes, etc. are fleshy fruits *Spices, such as nutmeg, ginger, clove, black pepper, etc. come from plants

Apical Meristems: Define (What are they?). What does the elongation of branching of a plant's stems and roots allow for? (In other words, what do apical meristems allow for?)

*Def: Growing producing regions found near the tips of stems and roots *Note: Elongation and branching of a plant's stem's and roots allows maximum exposure to the resources in the soil and air

Ancient Aquatic Plants: Describe what they were like: Rigid Tissues? How did they get nutrients and minerals? Light? What did they do w/ the light? What was sperm like? Any support tissues? How did they disperse?

*Didn't have rigid tissues (Not necessary cause lived in water) *Obtained nutrients and minerals out of water *Performed photosynthesis out of their body *Plenty of light on the surface *Flagellated sperm (Little tail. Got released into water. Fertilization happened this way) *No support tissues *Dispersal through water

Adaptations to Land: ---EARLY Plants: Where did early plants shed sperm? What was the egg in plants surrounded by? LAND Plants: What would happen to the gametes? What is the gametangia? Where does the egg and sperm stay?

*Early Plants shed sperm into water (stay moist) *Eggs in plant surrounded by water (stay moist) *Land plants: gametes would dry out *Gametangia: Protective jackets around gamete-producing cells *Egg stays put and moist; sperm swim to it so till need water

Ferns and Other Plants: In ferns, what is the dominant generation? Is most plants after ferns, what is the dominant generation?

*Ferns - Sporophyte is dominant generation *Most plants (All plants after Ferns) the sporophyte is the dominant generation

History: Ferns: How are their roots and stems? Where are they common? Can is grow tall? How is its stem? What conditions does it need for fertilization? How do they disperse their offspring?

*Ferns: Developed roots and rigid stems --Common in temperate forests, but most diverse in tropics *Has upright stems and can grow meters tall *Ferns and club mosses require moist conditions for fertilization and disperse their offspring as spores by air currents

History: When did vascular plants with seeds evolve? Seed plants account for what % of species?

*First vascular plants w/ seeds evolved 360 million years ago *Seed Plants account for over 90% of 290,000 species today

Angiosperms: What are they? When did they appear? Where do the seed develop?Are a lot of plants angiosperms? Examples?

*Flowering plants *Most recent evolution of plants (about 140 million years ago) *Seed develop within protective chambers *Majority of plants are angiosperms (250,000) *Ex: grass, flowering shrubs, flowering trees

Angiosperms: What is the site of fertilization and pollination? What does this "site" house?

*Flowers are the sites of pollination and fertilization *Flowers house seperate female and male sporangia and gametophytes (Like cones...)

Carbon: 1.What did fossil fuels remove from earth? 2. Where had those fossil fuels been sitting 3. How how are we using those fossil fuels and what has this resulted in?

*Fossil fuels removed CO2 from their earth. Resulted in a cooler climate *That carbon (fossil fuels) had been sitting in the ground for 300 million years *Now we use those fossil fuels... And this adds the CO2 back. Results in hotter climate

Algal Ancestors: 1. Where were they found? 2. What condition were they subjected to? 3. Some species had adaptations that allowed them to live where?

*Found on lakes or salt marshes over 500 million years ago *Were subject to occasional drying, thus natural selection favored algae that could survive periodic droughts *Some species had adaptations that allowed them to live permanently above the water line *

Fungus Structures: What is the fungal hyphae surrounded by? Define Chitin. What do cross-walls do? What happens if fungi lacks cross-walls entirely?

*Fungal hypae are surrounded by a cell wall made of chitin *Chitin- A strong, flexible nitrogen-containing polysacchride *Hyphae has cross-walls that have large pores that allows ribosomes, mitochondria, and nuclei to flow from cell to cell *Fungi that lacks cross-wall entirely have many nuclei within a single mass of cytoplasm

Fungal Reproduction: Do the reproduce sexually or asexually? What happens when fungi releases spores. What happens when a spore finds a moist place?

*Fungi produce spores sexually or asexually *Fungi releases lots of haploid spores that are dispersed by the wind or water *A spore that lands in a moist place with food, it germinates

Seed Plants: Male Reproductive Structures: What do the haploid spores develop into in males? Define pollination

*Haploid spores develop into pollen grains, which are male gametophytes in a tough wall *Many species release microscopic pollen grains *Pollination- If pollen grains land on a compatible female, it undergoes mitosis to produce a sperm

Glomeromycetes: What distinct structure do they have? Do plants have symbiotic relationships with them?

*Have a distinct type of mycorrhiza in which hyphae invade plant root cells, where they branch into treelike structures called arbuscules *80% of plants have symbiotic relationships with G's, which deliver minerals to plants while receiving organic nutrients in exchange

Ferns & Fern Allies: What chemical structure is in their cell walls? When did they evolve? Xylem or Phloem? Example of fern ally? What type of plant?

*Have lignin, thus grow taller *About 425 million years ago *Have Xylem and Phloem *Seedless Vascular Plants *Ex: Club Mosses (It is NOT a Moss...)

Lichens: Who do they have symbiotic associations with? What happens when growing lichen comes into contacts w/ a suitable partner? Why do lichens benefit from symbiosis. Can they survive on there own?

*Have symbiotic associations with millions of unicellular green algae and cynobacteria in a mass of fungal hyphae *When growing tips of forming lichen come into contact with a suitable partner, the hypae forks into tendrils and overgrow the algal cells *Benefits from symbiosis because it recieves food from photosynthetic partner *Can rarely survive on their own

Human Reproduction: Diploid or haploid organisms? What is the haploid part?What is the product of meiosis in humans? Is the zygote and embryo diploid?

*Humans = Diploid Organisms *Only haploid part is meiosis to create eggs or sperm ---Meiosis creates eggs in women ---Meiosis creates sperm in men *In Humans, the product of meiosis = haploid sperm and eggs *When fertilization occurs, the zygote is diploid. Later, the embryo is diploid

Human Life Cycle: Are humans diploid or haploid? Describe this

*Humans are diploids (2 sets of chromosomes, one from each parent) *Gametes (egg and sperm) are the only haploid stage in human life

Plants & Food Supply: How do plants feed the world now v. back in the day? 2. How has agriculture changed landscape? 3. Where may new crops come from? What does this improve?

*Humans used to make use of any edible plant species. Now Most of world is fed by variety of wheat, corn, and soybeans that require certain cultivation techniques *2. Through deforestation- burning or cutting down trees for farming *3. New crops may come from species of fruits, nuts, grains that are gathered and used locally (Ex: Chocolate Berries). This improves species diversity

Fungal Reproduction Cycle: What does hyphae from each mycelium release? Please describe the reproduction process from here. (Define the heterokaryotic stage)

*Hyphae from each mycelium release signaling molecules and grow toward each other *1. Hyphae meet, their cytoplasms fuse, the parent nuceli don't fuse. ---Fungi have a heterokaryotic stage- when cells contain 2 genetically distinct haploid nuclei. It can take hours, days, centuries, for nuclei to fuse *2. Parent nuclei fuse, which forms short-lived diploid phase

Fungus Structures: Define hypae, mycelium, and the "umbrellas"

*Hyphae- A network of threadlike filaments- feeding structures of fungus ---They branch repeatedly as they grow, forming a mass called mycelium *The "umbrellas" are reproductive structures made up of hyphae

Plant Life Cycle: Non-vascular Plants v. Most Plants (Vascular): Which is cycle is dominant in non-vascular plants? Vascular plants? What % of plants are dominated by sporophyte?

*In Non-vascular plants, (Moss) the gametophyte is the larger, more obvious cycle *In Most plants (Vascular, like Ferns) like cycle is dominated by sporophyte *95% of all plants are dominated by sporophyte in their life cycle

Reproduction & Dispersal: What does the fertilized egg develop into? What distinguishes plants from algae?

*In all plants, the fertilized egg (zygote) develops into an embryo while attached to and nourished by plant parent cell. *This dependent embryo is the basis for designating plants as embryophytes, distinguishing them from algae

Fungi: Because fungi cannot move, how does it make up for its immobility when obtaining nutrients? Are ALL fungi decomposers?

*It has mycelium that grows at a rapid rate and can branch VERY far and through food sources *No, not all fungi are decomposers. Some live in symbiosis

Land Plants: When did they arrive on land? Why did early plant life thrive? What were some challenges for plant life?

*Land plants arrived about 470 million years ago *Early plant life thrived because there was plenty of CO2, and few pathogens and herbivores *Challenges: They were surrounded by air rather than water, thus they had to be able to maintain moisture inside their cells, support their body in a non-buoyant medium, and reproduce and disperse offspring without water

Colonization of Land: What helped plants to colonize on land? How? What relationships did glomeromycetes form?

*Lichens & Fungi helped plants obtain water and scarce nutrients from the soil while colonizing a new land *Glomeromycetes formed relationships with tissues that lacked true roots, a characteristic of the early plants

Life Cycles for Plants: What do ALL life cycles for plants include?

*Life cycles for all plants includes a haploid generation (produces egg and sperm) and a diploid generation (produces spores within protective structure called sporangia)

Ovules: What does each ovule in an angiosperm contain? What will it produce? What happens once the ovary matures?

*Like in Pines, each ovule contains a sporangium that will produce a female gametophyte and eventually become a seed *The ovary matures into a fruit, which aids in seed dispersal

Moss: Please describe the characteristics of moss

*Many plants growing in a tight pack *Bodies hold one another upright *Mat is spongy and retains water

Meiosis: Define.How many daughter cells? What is the result (product) of meiosis? What is the product of meiosis in plants?

*Meiosis- 2 successive nuclear divisions in which the chromosome # is reduced from diploid (2n) to haploid (n) and segregation of genes occurs ---4 haploid daughter cells are the result *Gametes or spores may result ---In plants, the result of meiosis = haploid spores

Mold & Yeast: Define each. Where can they each be found?

*Mold- Any rapidly growing fungus that reproduces asexually by producing spores, often at tips of specialized hyphae. (On aging fruit or bread) *Yeast- any single-celled fungus. Reproduce asexually by cell division, often by budding (Pinching off small buds from parent cell) (In plant saps and animal tissues)

Reproduction & Dispersal: Who relied on spores and who relies on seeds?

*Mosses and Ferns rely on spores for dispersal *Pines and flowering plants rely on seeds

Fungus Structures: 1. How to mushrooms rise? 2. What happens once the bud is developed 3. What happens once the mushroom is above the ground?

*Mushrooms rise as small bud of mycelium that extend through the food source *When the bud is developed, the absorption of water cause water pressure and pops the mushroom to the surface *Above ground, the mushroom produces reproductive cells (spores) at the top of special hypae and the spores are dispersed on air currents

Mycorrhiza: What is it? Please describe this mutual relationship. (Where does hypae of mycorrhizal branch? What does the mycorrhizae absorb? What does sugar do for fungi?)

*Mycorrhiza- The symbiosis b/w fungi and plant roots- *The hyphae of some mycorrhizal fungal branch into the root cells *Then both types of mycorrhizae absorb minerals from the soil and make them available to plants *Sugars produced by the plant nourishes the fungi

Bryophytes: Do they have Xylem or Phloem? Some of them have water kind of specialized tissues? Do they have an alternation of generations?

*No Xylem or Phloem = Non-Vascular *Some bryophytes have specialized conducting tissues, but water-conducting cells are not lignified - Are short, as a result *Like vascular plants, have alternation of generations

Do all flowers have colorful petals and sweet fragrance? What is the difference on how pollen is dispersed b/w flowers that have colors and scents v. flowers that do not?

*No, not all flowers do. For ex, the red maple has many stamens, but no petals *Having petals requires a lot of energy to produce, but it's worth it when the color or fragrance attracts a pollinator and then carries the pollen to another compatible flower *The red maple puts a lot of energy to make lots of pollen for release into the wind

Chytrids: Only fungi w/ what? Early or late lineage? Where are they found? Are the decomposers or parasites? What type of animal have they been linked w/ killing?

*ONLY fungi w/ flagellated spores *Earliest lineage of fungi *Common is lakes, ponds and soils *Some are decomposers, some parasitize *Chytrids have been linked with decline of amphibians (Fungal disease killing them)

Bryophytes: Where are these plants? Are they early land plants? Seedless? Vascular? Where did the colonize? What can they withstand?

*Often found in damp places like waterfalls and along streams and wetlands. Can be found in very dry deserts or extremely cold conditions *A lot of evidence that 1st LAND plants were bryophytes - Initial colonizers of bare rock and soil - Can withstand deification (Drying out)

Gymonsperms: Are they late seed plants? Why are seeds of G said to be naked. What does the largest clade of G consist of?

*One of the earliest seed plants *Seed of "G" are said to be naked because they're NOT produced in special chambers *Largest clade of "G" are conifers- cone-bearing trees, such as pine, spruce, and fir

Evolutionary History of Plants: When was the origin of vascular plants? What does lignin allow plants to do?

*Origin of vascular plants occurred 425 million years ago *Lignin-vascular tissues provide support, and allows them to stand tall and grow upright on land

Carboniferous Period: What did the photosynthesis from the trees do? 2. What happened as plants died? 3. What happened once seawater covered swamps? Define fossil fuel

*Photosynthesis took CO2 and made organic molecules, thus reducing CO2 in air and causing global cooling (Cause more CO2 = traps more heat) *As the plants died, they didn't decay completely and their remains formed deposits called peat *Later, seawater covered the swamps, marine water covered the peat, and pressure & heat gradually converted peat into fossil fuels *Fossil Fuel- black sedimentary rock made up of fossilized plant material

Plant Roots & Stems: What do plant roots and stems do?

*Plant roots provide anchorage and absorb water and minerals from the soil *Plant stems bear leaves, which get CO2 from air and light from the sun (Photosynthesis!)

Fungi & Plants: Who is more susceptible to fungi: plants or animals? Examples of human fungus diseases/illness?

*Plants are more susceptible to fungi than animals *Ex of Human Fungus Diseases/ Illness: Athlete's Foot, Vaginal Infections

Plant Life Cycle: Define alteration of generations, gametophyte, & sporophyte. What do these 2 generations do with each other?

*Plants have an alteration of generations: The diploid and haploid stages are distinct, multicellular bodies *Gametophyte- Plant gametes of haploid generation *Sporophyte- Plant spores of diploid generation *In a plant life cycle, these 2 generations alternate, producing each other

Land Plants & Obtaining Resources: Plants get their resources from what 2 locations? What is found in EACH of those locations?

*Plants must get resources from 2 locations: Air & Soil *In Soil: Water and mineral nutrients are found *In Air: Light and CO2 are found

Evolutionary History of Plants: 1. Where do plants orginate? What did diversification led to? What are byrophtes and what do they resemble? What do they lack?

*Plants originated from algal ancestors 470 million years ago *Diversification led to seedless, non-vascular plants, such as mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. *Those plants are called bryophytes and the resemble other plants because they have meristems and embryos on parent plant, but lack true roots and leaves. Without lignin, they lack upright support

Adaptations to Land: What were plants subjected to? What does the cuticle do?

*Plants subjected to periodic drying out/ drought ---Had a mutation to sustain drying out Adapted a Cuticle- a waxy layer that prevents water loss from stems and leaves (Water also can't really get in either)

Adaptations to Land: How does CO2 enter the plant body? What does the stomata do? On land, what is the root & shoot system?

*Pores in cuticles is how CO2 enters ---While water and oxygen exit through the stomata (opening and closing of pore) *On land, plants had to anchor body in soil by the root system ---Water and nutrients get into plant by roots *Leaves are the photosynthetic area- they have a "Shoot" System *Root & Shoot system have vertical growth

What does the ability to establish a symbiotic relationship require? 2. What gene was found in all major lineages of plants?

*Requires partners to identify each other by exchanging signals of mutual recognition and acceptance *2. Gene: Sym. Thus, if plants have a similar gene their function should have changed very little. (The Sym gene of liverworts should work similar to flowers)

Lichens: Where do they live? When and why are they important on land? Where do they grow (area and temp)? Can they deal w/ droughts? What CAN'T they withstand?

*Rugged and able to live where there is little or no soil *Important on new lands (Cause of not needing soil) *Grow on tiny rock crevices *Can grow in cold areas *Can withstand severe drought *Can NOT withstand air pollution (Death of lichens = sign that air quality is depleting)

What is the difference b/w seed and seedless plants for reproducing and dispersing offspring?

*Seedless: Produces flagellated sperm that needs moisture to reach an egg *Seed: (Gymnosperms and angiosperms)- Have pollen grains that carry sperm producing cells through the air

How do seedless plants send their offspring off into the world? Seed plants?

*Seedless: Sent off as haploid, single-celled spores that must survive independently as gametophytes before producing next sporophyte generation *Seed: Launch next-generation sporophytes that are ready to grow

What is the difference b/w plants that have an elaborate vascular tissues and simple ones (or not one at all)?

*Some plants have elaborate vascular tissues, but mosses lack a complex system (have a simple vascular tissues). Thus, they have limited means for distributing water and minerals, and the height of non-vascular plants are limited

Seed Plants: Female Reproductive Structures: What are ovules? What happens if pollination has occurred? Are fertilization and pollination separate events?

*Structures develop into ovules, which contain the egg-producing female gametophyte *If pollination has occurred, the pollen grows a tiny tube that enters the ovule and releases the sperm nucleus. Now fertilization has occurred *Fertilization and pollination are separate events

Angiosperms: What are 3 key adaptations that allows for the success of angiosperms?

*The evolution of flowers that attract animals (which carry pollen more reliably than wind) was a key adaptation for angiosperms *They also can reproduce rapidly (Fertilization occurrs 12 hours after pollination). Pines takes years to reproduce *Another helpful factor, was the development of fruit, which protects the seeds

Lichens: How does the algae or cynobacteria benefit from this relationship? Is it ALWAYS clear that there is a beneficial relationship for both parties?

*The fungal mycelium provides a habitat that helps algae or cynobacteria absorb and retain water and minerals *In some lichens, its unclear whether the photoynthetic organism benefits or it's just an advantage for the fungus

How are angiosperms and gymnosperms similar, as far as the dominant generation

*The sporophyte generation is dominant and produces the gametophyte generation in it body (If this helps: The angiosperm is a sporophyte with gametophytes in its flowers)

Seed Plants: What does a special structure have within it? What is is called in gymnosperms? What does each leaf in a cone produce? Are spores of seed plants released?

*There is a special structure in the sporophyte that has all the reproductive stages: spores, egg, sperm, zygotes, embryos *In gymnosperms, pines & conifers, etc., this structure is called a cone *Each leaf of the cone produces spores through meiosis *Unlike seedless plants, the spores of seed plants are NOT released. Spores give rise to gamophytes within the shelter of sporophyte

How do fungi obtain their nutrients? Are they autotrophs or heterotrophs? What kind of enzymes do some fungi produce?

*They're heterotrophs that obtain their nutrients by absorption *The secret enzymes that digest macromolecules into monomers and then absorb the small nutrient molecules into their cells *Some fungi produce enzymes that digest cellulose and lignin

Charophytes: What are they?

*They're plants and green algae *They're photosynthetic Eukaryotes

Seed Plants: What happens to the diploid zygote? When does it turn into a seed?

*This diploid zygote undergoes mitosis and becomes a sporophyte embryo *The ovule and its surrounding tissue mature into a seed. Has a food supply until it can do photosynthesis. A tough seed coat forms around it.

What happens as an embryo begins to grow? (The seed from the fruit) When is its life cycle complete?

*Uses food supply from the seed until it can photosynthesize *It has completed its life cycle once it develops into a mature sporophyte plant

Adapatations to Land: Vascular System- What is Xylem, Phloem, and Lignin

*Vascular System ---Xylem- Dead cells of connect tubes that transports the water throughout the plants ---Phloem- Living cells transports the sugars throughout the plant body ---Lignin- chemical in the cell walls that thickens the wall and allows for vertical growth

Vascular Tissue: Define. What are the 2 types of vascular tissue?

*Vasuclar Tissue: Most plants have it. It's a network of thick-walled cells joined into narrow tubes that extend throughout the plant body *2 types of V-Tissues: Xylem & Phloem

Imperfect Fungi: Define. Examples

*Where asexual reproduction is the only known means of reproduction in this fungi (Most fungi can reproduce sexually or asexually) *Ex: Molds, Yeast

Define Xylem & Phloem

*Xylem- Dead cells from microscopic pipes conveying water and minerals up the roots *Phloem- Consists entirely of living cells, distributes sugars throughout the plant

Class Notes

...

Fungi Phylogeny: What are the 5 groups that classifies fungus?

1. Chytrids 2. Zygomycetes- Zygote Fungus 3. Glomeromycetes- Arbuscular Mycorrhizal fungi 4. Ascomycetes- Sac Fungi 5. Basidiomycetes- Club Fungi

What are 4 key adaptations for life on that distinguishes land lineages

1. Dependent embryos are present in all plants 2. Lignified vascular tissue mark a lineage that gave rise to most living plants 3. Seeds are found in all living gymnosperms and angiosperms 4. Flowers marks angiosperm lineage

General Plant Reproduction: Go through process starting with the gametophyte plant (What does the gametophyte undergo?)

1. Gametophyte Plant (n- Haploid) - Cells undergo mitosis and create sperms and eggs 2. Fertilization happens 3. Zygote rises by mitosis (diploid, 2n) and develops into sporophyte 4. Sporophytes Plant (2n) undergo meiosis and produce spores 5. Spores grow into a gametophyte

Order of Primitive Land Plants? (Note: Embryophytes = ...)

1. Liverworts 2. Hornworts 3. Mosses 4. Vascular Plants o Note: Embryophytes = Plants

Moss Life Cycle: Describe the moss life cycle. (Start with male gametophyte. What is created in the male gametangium?)

1. Male Gametophyte creates sperm in male gametangium by mitosis ---Female gametophyte creates eggs in female G by mitosis 2. FLAGELLATED Sperm swims to female gametangium. Fertilization happens 3. Zygote forms and undergoes mitosis to become a sporophyte 4. Sporophyte (2n) produce spores 5. Spores grow into gametophyte by mitosis (Spores dispersed by wind)

Fern Life Cycle: Describe fern life cycle (Start with Male gametophyte. What is produced in the male gametangium?)

1. Male gametophyte produce sperm in male gametangium by mitosis ---Female gametophyte produce eggs in female G by mitosis 2. Sperm swims to female gametangium. Fertilization occurs 3. Zygote undergoes mitosis and growth to form a sporophyte (2n)

Some angiosperms depend on (blank) for seed dispersal. Examples? What allows some angiosperm to hitch a ride on animals?

1. Wind *Ex: Fruit of a dandelion *Hook-like modification on the outer layer of the fruit or seed coat allows some angiosperm to hitch a ride on animals

Ferns Life Cycle Cont'd: (Start w/ disintegrating gametophyte)

4. The Gametophyte then disintegrates (The heart-shaped piece) 5. Sporophyte then matures. Clusters of sporangia are on them 6. In the sporangia does the production of spores by meiosis 7. Spores then get dispersed. Then it develops into a gametophyte

Where did plant adaptations evolve from? Where do most present day plants live?

Algae survival and reproduction on dry land *Some plants even returned to aquatic habitats during their evolution *Most present-day plants live in terrestrial environments (land)

Seed: Define. Pollen: Define

An embryo packed with a food supply within a protective covering *Pollen: Bring sperm-producing cells into contact with egg producing parts without water

Non-Vascular, Seedless Plants = ...

Bryophytes

What attracts pollinators to flowers? Example with birds and beetles and bees?

Certain types of flower colors and scents attract certain pollinators *Ex: Birds attract to bright colors, indifferent to scent. Beetles attracted to certain scents, but indifferent to color *Ex: Some nectar reflects UV light, which makes it readily visible to bees

Fungi: How many species have been found? How many may there be?

Found over 100,000 *May be as many as 1.5 million

Plants have an alternation of generations. What is an alternation of generations?

It's in which the haploid and diploid stages are distinct, multicellular bodies (Unlike humans, where the haploid and diploid occur in the same place) *Generations = Phases of Life Cycle

Mitosis: What kind of organisms? Define. How many diploid cells?

Mitosis- Multicellular organisms, it is the means of tissue growth and maintenance - End up w/ 2 diploid cells

What is another approach to improve species diversity? Example?

Modifying crops to enable them to survive in less than favorable conditions *Ex: Genes that enable plants to grow in salty soils, tolerate heat and drought, etc.

Why do plants needed connect their subterranean and aerial parts?

Plants must be able to connect its subterranean and aerial parts, conducting water and minerals upward from its roots and distributing sugar produced in its leaves throughout the body

What are 2 key adaptations for plants for life on land?

Pollen & Seeds

What dominated vast "coal" forests?

Seedless vascular plants

What are 2 key adaptations that improved the ability of seeds to diversify in terrestrial habitats?

Seeds & Pollen

Seeds: What are they?

Seeds are elaborate embryo-containing structures that are well protected from elements and are dispersed by wind or animals

Fruit: Define. What kind of adaptation is it?

The ripened ovary of a flower *An adaptation that helps disperse seeds

Having a flagellated sperm = you need

Water, so the sperm can swim to the egg

Bryophytes: What are the 3 main types of phyla? What kind of plants are they? Is Club Moss a type of moss?

o 3 Main Phyla: Liverworts, Hornworts, Mosses o Seedless, Non-Vascular Plants o Non-Vascular Plants = AKA Bryophytes o Note: Club Moss is NOT a moss