Chapter 18

What was at the heart of Europe's social organization? Was this similar or different to the previous eras?

- the family was at the heart of Europe's social organization - people still thought of the family in traditional terms, as a patriarchal institution with the husband dominating his wife and children.

What four interrelated factors contributed to the dramatic increase of food production in the 18th century?

1. More farmland 2. Increased crop yields per acre 3. Healthier and more abundant livestock 4. Improved climate

What was primogeniture? Why did it come under attack?

Primogeniture: an inheritance practice in which the eldest son receives all or the largest share of the parents' estate. - All children, it was argued, deserved their parents' attention.

What were the principles of "self interest" and "balance-of-power" and how did each guide European state relations of the 18th century?

Self interest: self-governing, individual states Balance of power: a distribution of power among several states such that no single nation can dominate or interfere with the interests of another. - This balance of power, however, did not imply a desire for peace. Large armies created to defend a state's security were often used for offensive purposes as well. - The diplomacy of the eighteenth century still focused primarily on dynastic interests, or the desire of ruling families to provide for their dependents and extend their dynastic holdings

Who was the last Stuart ruler of England? What dynasty replaced her? Who was the new king? How did this occur?

last Stuart ruler of England: Queen Anne - Queen Anne died without an heir and the crown was offered to the Protestant rulers of the German state of Hanover (Hanoverians) - the first Hanoverian king, George I

What changes pertaining to Spain and Austria did Italy face in the 18th century?

- After the Treaty of Utrecht, Austria had replaced Spain as the dominant force in Italy in the eighteenth century. The duchy of Milan, Sardinia, and the kingdom of Naples were all surrendered to the Habsburg emperors - Sicily was given to the northern Italian state of Savoy, which was slowly emerging as a state with an appetite for territorial expansion. - In 1734, the Bourbons of Spain reestablished control over Naples and Sicily. Though some Italian states, such as Venice and Genoa, remained independent, they grew increasingly impotent in international affairs.

What was a "grand tour" and what kind of goals were meant to be attained by such a trip? Give an example of what a grand tour may look like.

- An important aspect of eighteenth-century travel was the grand tour, in which the sons of aristocrats completed their education by making a tour of Europe's major cities. - The English in particular were known for spending vast sums of money during their travels - young Englishmen were usually accompanied by a tutor who ensured that his charges spent time looking at museum collections of natural history and antiquities. But tutors were not able to stop young men from also pursuing wine, women, and song. - After crossing the Channel, English visitors went to Paris for a cram course on how to act sophisticated. They then went on to Italy, where their favorite destinations were Florence, Venice, and Rome. In Florence, the studious and ambitious studied art in the Uffizi Gallery. Rome was another "great object of our pilgrimage," where travelers visited the "modern" sights, such as Saint Peter's and, above all, the ancient ruins.

Where did so many children end up, if not the victims of infanticide? Why was this so?

- More common than infanticide was simply leaving unwanted children at foundling homes or hospitals, which became a favorite charity of the rich in eighteenth-century Europe. By the end of the century, a hospital was taking in 5,000 new babies a year and caring for 25,000 children at one time. - one-third of all babies born in Paris were taken to foundling institutions by parents or desperate unmarried mothers, creating serious overcrowding. - Foundling institutions often proved fatal for infants. Mortality rates ranged from 50 percent to as high as 90 percent (in a sense making foundling homes a legalized form of infanticide). Children who survived were usually sent to miserable jobs

What kinds of daily functions did nobles attend that made their life "sweet"? The majority of aristocratic landowners did not participate in court society. What were the features of the country house?

- As at Versailles, these courts were the aristocracy whose income from rents or officeholding enabled them to participate in this lifestyle. This court society manifested common characteristics: participation in intrigues for the king's or prince's favor, serene walks in formal gardens, and duels to maintain one's honor. - The majority of aristocratic landowners, however, remained on their country estates and did not participate in court society; their large houses continued to give witness to their domination of the surrounding countryside. - English landed aristocrats invested much time, energy, and money in their rural estates - many houses built in Georgian style, influenced by classical serenity and sedateness of the sixteenth-century Venetian architect Andrea Palladio. Elegance, domesticity - The lower floors were devoted to public activities—dining, entertaining, and leisure, formal dining room, informal breakfast room, library, study, gallery, billiard room, and conservatory, large staircase, drawing room, bedrooms - withdrawing room that women would go to

What was the enclosure movement? How was it particularly influential (and rather corrupt) in England?

- As crop yields increased, food prices began to decline, leaving landlords with the prospect of lowered profits. Their response was to enact legislation. - In England, Parliament was dominated by the landed aristocracy and enacted legislation to allow agricultural lands to be legally enclosed. As a result of these enclosure acts, England gradually became a land of large estates, and many small farmers were forced to become wage laborers or tenant farmers working farms of 100 to 500 acres. The enclosure acts allowed landlords to easily evict their tenants while converting the crop fields to meadows to raise sheep and generate income from their wool. - The enclosure movement and new agricultural practices largely destroyed the traditional patterns of English village life

What was the administration of Spain like after the Bourbons took over following the end of the War of Spanish Succession in 1713?

- Bourbon rule temporarily rejuvenated Spain and provided an opportunity to centralize the institutions of the state. Under Philip V, the laws, administrative institutions, and language of Castile were established in the other Spanish kingdoms, making the king of Castile truly the king of Spain. French-style ministries and officials similar to French intendants were introduced. now had fewer administrative problems and less drain on its already overtaxed economic resources. - In the second half of the eighteenth century, especially during the reign of Charles III, the Catholic Church was also brought under royal control when the king banished the Jesuits and circumscribed the activities of the Inquisition. The king undertook ambitious economic reforms, establishing new roads, canals, textile mills, and banks. He also attempted to reduce the authority of the landed aristocrats by curbing the privileges of the great sheep ranchers. The landed aristocracy continued to exercise substantial power throughout the eighteenth century, however.

What rivalries instigated the conflict? Who was against who?

- Bourbon-Habsburg rivalry had been a fact of European diplomacy since the late sixteenth century. But two new rivalries made this old one seem superfluous: Britain and France over colonial empires, and Austria and Prussia over Silesia. - France now abandoned Prussia and allied with Austria. Russia, which saw Prussia as a major hindrance to Russian goals in central Europe, joined the new alliance. In turn, Great Britain allied with Prussia.

Catherine the Great had a confusing relationship with the Enlightenment. Explain this concept. Was she for it or against it, and to what degree did her policies reflect this?

- Catherine was familiar with the works of the philosophes. She claimed that she wished to reform Russia along the lines of Enlightenment ideas, but she was always shrewd enough to realize that her success depended on the support of the palace guard and the gentry class from which it stemmed. She could not afford to alienate the Russian nobility - initially seemed eager to pursue reform. In her Instruction, written as a guide to the deliberations, Catherine questioned the institutions of serfdom, torture, and capital punishment and even advocated the principle of the equality of all people in the eyes of the law. But a year and a half of negotiation produced little real change.

Who benefited most from Catherine the Great's rule and why? Who suffered the most and why?

- Catherine's policies strengthened the landholding class at the expense of all others, especially the Russian serfs. To reorganize local government, Catherine divided Russia into fifty provinces, each of which was in turn subdivided into districts ruled by officials chosen by the nobles. In this way, the local nobility became responsible for the day-to-day governing of Russia. - the gentry were now formed into corporate groups with special legal privileges, including the right to trial by peers and exemption from personal taxation and corporal punishment. The Charter of the Nobility formalized these rights in 1785.

People who lived in towns could be either very wealthy or very poor. Talk about the differences between different kinds of urban dwellers

- Despite their domination, patricians constituted only a small minority of the urban population. - Just below the patricians stood an upper crust of the middle classes: non-noble officeholders, financiers and bankers, merchants, wealthy rentiers and important professionals, including lawyers. - Another large urban group was the petty bourgeoisie or lower middle class, made up of master artisans, shopkeepers, and small traders. - Below them were the laborers or working classes. Much urban industry was still carried on in small guild workshops by masters, journeymen, and apprentices. Apprentices who acquired the proper skills became journeymen before entering the ranks of the masters, but increasingly in the eighteenth century, guilds became closed oligarchies as membership was restricted to the relatives of masters. - Many skilled artisans were then often forced to become low-paid workers. Urban communities also had a large group of unskilled workers who served as servants, maids, and cooks at pitifully low wages.

Why weren't all nobles the same, even in a single location?

- Differences in wealth, education, and political power also led to differences within countries as well. - The gap between rich and poor nobles could be enormous. As the century progressed, poor nobles sometimes sank into the ranks of the unprivileged masses of the population.

By far the most important conflict of this century was the Seven Years' War (known as the French and Indian War in North America). Many historians refer to it as the first true world-wide war. What were the 3 major areas of conflict?

- three major areas of conflict: Europe, India, and North America

Who ruled Austria from 1740-80? What kinds of changes or reforms did she make while she was in power? Was she open to the Enlightenment?

- Empress Maria Theresa - resolved to reform her empire in preparation for the seemingly inevitable next conflict with rival Prussia. - curtailed the role of the diets or provincial assemblies in taxation and local administration. Now clergy and nobles were forced to pay property and income taxes to royal officials rather than the diets. - The Austrian and Bohemian lands were divided into ten provinces and subdivided into districts, all administered by royal officials rather than representatives of the diets, making part of the Austrian Empire more centralized and more bureaucratic. - these administrative reforms were done for practical reasons—to strengthen the power of the Habsburg state—and were accompanied by the expansion and modernization of the armed forces. - remained staunchly Catholic and conservative and was not open to the philosophes' calls for wider reforms.

What happened to the European population in the 18th century (particular the 2nd half of it) and why?

- Europe's population began to grow around 1750 and experienced a slow but steady rise - the growth rate in the second half of the century was double that of the first half. - These increases occurred during the same time that several million Europeans were going abroad as colonists. - most important cause of population growth was a decline in the death rate, thanks to more plentiful food and better transportation of food supplies, which led to improved diets and some relief from devastating famines. - Also of great significance was the end of the bubonic plague:

Who were the two major forces battling it out in North America? What are the factors that allowed the British to be more successful in this conflict?

- France and Britain - the French moved south from the Great Lakes and north from their garrisons along the Mississippi, began to establish forts from the Appalachians to the Mississippi River. To British settlers in the thirteen colonies to the east, this French activity threatened to cut off a vast area from British expansion. - The French found allies among the Indians, who considered the French traders less threatening than the British settlers. - Despite initial French successes, British fortunes were revived by the efforts of William Pitt the Elder. concentrated on resources, especially the British navy, on the colonial war. the French troops were greater in number but their ability to use them in the New World was contingent on naval support. - The defeat of French fleets in major naval battles in 1759 gave the British an advantage since the French could no longer easily reinforce their garrisons. - in 1758, the British had captured Forts Louisbourg and Duquesne. Then, on the night of September 13, 1759, British forces led by General James Wolfe scaled the heights outside Quebec and defeated the French under General Louis-Joseph Montcalm on the Plains of Abraham. - The British went on to seize Montreal, the Great Lakes area, and the Ohio valley. The French were forced to make peace. By the Treaty of Paris, they ceded Canada and the lands east of the Mississippi to Britain. Their ally Spain transferred Spanish Florida to British control; in return, the French gave their Louisiana territory to the Spanish.

How did the army and bureaucracy of Prussia work? To what extent were they effective? What Prussian rulers were in charge during this time?

- Frederick William I and Frederick II, further developed the two major institutions—the army and the bureaucracy—that were the backbone of Prussia - Frederick William I promoted the evolution of Prussia's highly efficient civil bureaucracy by establishing the General Directory. It served as the chief administrative agent of the central government, supervising military, police, economic, and financial affairs. Frederick William strove to maintain a highly efficient bureaucracy of civil service workers. It had its own code, in which the supreme values were obedience, honor, and service to the king as the highest duty. Frederick William personally kept a close watch over his officials to ensure that they performed their duties - Close personal supervision of the bureaucracy became a hallmark of the eighteenth-century Prussian rulers.

What kinds of territorial changes took place in Prussia under Frederick the Great? Be specific in how these were acquired.

- Frederick did not hesitate to take advantage of a succession crisis in the Habsburg monarchy to seize the Austrian province of Silesia for Prussia. This act aroused Austria's bitter hostility and embroiled Frederick in two major wars, the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War. - the first partition of Poland with Austria and Russia in 1772 gave him the Polish territory between Prussia and Brandenburg, bringing greater unity to the scattered lands of Prussia.

How might nobility have differed across different locations in Europe? Name a few examples

- Landlords in England lease their land to tenant farmers while those eastern Europe used the labor services for serfs - Nobles in Prussia/Russia served the state, but those in Spain/Italy had few official functions

Elaborate on how various factors influence birthrate during the 18th century (EX: marriage rate, age, illegitimate births, etc.)

- Late marriages imposed limits on the birthrate; in fact, they might be viewed as a natural form of birth control. - After 1750, illegitimacy appears to have increased. Studies in Germany, for example, show that rates of illegitimacy increased from 2 percent in 1700 to 5 percent in 1760 and to 10 percent in 1800, followed by an even more dramatic increase in the early nineteenth century. - For married couples, the first child usually appeared within one year of marriage, and additional children came at intervals of two or three years, producing an average of five births per family. - It would appear that the birthrate had the potential of causing a significant increase in population. This possibility was restricted, because 40 to 60 percent of European women of childbearing age (between fifteen and forty-four) were not married at any given time. Moreover, by the end of the eighteenth century, especially among the upper classes in France and Britain, birth control techniques were being used to limit the number of children.

What 3 major arguments serve as the backbone of the argument that Enlightenment Absolutism really wasn't what it was cracked up to be?

- Necessities of state and maintenance of the existing system took precedence over reform. - Joseph, Frederick, and Catherine were all guided primarily by a concern for the power and well-being of their states and that their policies were not all that different from those of their predecessors. - In the final analysis, heightened state power was used to amass armies and wage wars to gain more power. - not only military but also political and social realities limited the ability of enlightened rulers to make reforms. Everywhere in Europe, the hereditary aristocracy still held the most power in society. Enlightened reforms were often limited to changes in the administrative and judicial systems that did not seriously undermine the powerful interests of the European nobility.

What kinds of features of peasant life in much of Western Europe were the most resented by them? Why? (At least four)

- Peasants in Britain, northern Italy, the Low Countries, Spain, most of France, and some areas of western Germany were legally free, though not exempt from burdens. - Some free peasants in Andalusia in Spain, southern Italy, Sicily, and Portugal lived in poverty more desperate than that of many serfs in Russia and eastern Germany. - Small peasant proprietors in western Europe were also not free from compulsory services. Most owed tithes, often one-third of their crops. - Local aristocrats claimed hunting rights on peasant land and had monopolies over the flour mills, community ovens, and wine and oil presses needed by the peasants. - Hunting rights, dues, fees, and tithes were all deeply resented.

What was the consumer revolution? Where did it take place? What kinds of things were people "consuming"?

- Small merchants, craftspeople, and shopkeepers were growing in number, aided by the developments in industry. This led to the beginnings of a consumer revolution that was primarily centered in England in the eighteenth century. - Consumers purchased goods including china, silverware, cut glass, mahogany furniture, teapots, and ready-made clothing (Porcelain had been imported from China for centuries; however, by the eighteenth century factories on the Continent and in England had bypassed Chinese production. Large showrooms opened in London)

What happened to Poland during the 18th century. What changes did it undergo (numerous partitions)

- The Polish king was elected by the Polish nobles and forced to accept drastic restrictions on his power, including limited revenues, a small bureaucracy, and a standing army of no more than 20,000 soldiers. For Polish nobles, these limitations eliminated an absolute king; for Poland's powerful neighbors, they were an invitation to meddle in its affairs. - total destruction arose from the rivalries of its three great neighbors, Austria, Russia, and Prussia. the three powers agreed to the acquisition of roughly equal territories at Poland's expense. first partition: In 1772, Poland lost about 30 percent of its land and 50 percent of its population. Austria gained the agriculturally rich district of Galicia, Russia took the largest slice of land in eastern Poland, and Prussia acquired West Prussia, (smallest but most valuable territory because it united two of the chief sections of Prussia) - The remaining Polish state was supposedly independent but it was dominated by the Russians (kept troops on Polish territory) After the Poles attempted to establish a stronger state under a hereditary monarchy in 1791, the Russians gained the support of Austria and Prussia and intervened militarily in May 1792. Second partition: In the following year, Russia and Prussia undertook a second partition of Polish territory. Third partition: Finally, after a heroic but hopeless rebellion in 1794-1795 under General Thaddeus Kosciuszko, the remaining Polish state was obliterated by Austria, Prussia, and Russia in the third partition of Poland (1795). Many historians have pointed to Poland's demise as a cogent example of why building a strong, absolutist state was essential to survival in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

When did England become known as Great Britain? How was England's government different in its operation from France? What's the difference between Peerage and Gentry?

- The United Kingdom of Great Britain came into existence in 1707 when the governments of England and Scotland were united; the term British came to refer to both English and Scots - eighteenth-century British political system was characterized by a sharing of power between king and Parliament, with Parliament gradually gaining the upper hand. The king chose ministers responsible to himself who set policy and guided Parliament; Parliament had the power to make laws, levy taxes, pass the budget, and indirectly influence the king's ministers. - The eighteenth-century British Parliament was dominated by a landed aristocracy that historians usually divide into two groups: the peers, who sat for life in the House of Lords, and the landed gentry, who sat in the House of Commons and served as justices of the peace in the counties. The two groups had much in common: both were landowners with similar economic interests, and they frequently intermarried. - The deputies to the House of Commons were chosen from the boroughs and counties, but not by popular voting. Who was eligible to vote in the boroughs varied wildly, enabling wealthy landed aristocrats to gain support by patronage and bribery; the result was a number of "pocket boroughs" controlled by a single person

What was the open-field system? What does it mean to let land lie fallow? What system replaced it?

- The amount of land under cultivation was increased by abandoning the old open-field system, in which part of the land was allowed to lie fallow to renew it and plow it for weeds. - The formerly empty fields were now planted with new crops, such as alfalfa, turnips, and clover, which stored nitrogen in their roots and thereby restored the soil's fertility.

Townspeople (or urban dwellers) made a distinct minority of the overall population with the exception of a few places. What kinds of roles did townspeople play? Why were towns important to the social structure of Europeans?

- The contrasts between a large city, with its education, culture, and material consumption, and the surrounding, often poverty-stricken countryside were striking - Peasants often resented the prosperity of towns and their exploitation of the countryside to serve urban interests. - Palermo in Sicily used one-third of the island's food production while paying only one-tenth of the taxes. Towns lived off the countryside not by buying peasant produce but by acquiring it through tithes, rents, and dues.

What kinds of new inventions allowed for the rapid production of these products; who invented them; and their primary function

- The flying shuttle sped up the process of weaving on a loom, thereby increasing the need for large quantities of yarn. - Richard Arkwright invented a "water frame," powered by horse or water, which turned out yarn much faster than cottage spinning wheels. This abundance of yarn, in turn, led to the development of mechanized looms, invented in the 1780s but not widely adopted until the early nineteenth century. - rural workers, perceiving that the new machines threatened their traditional livelihood, had begun to call for the machines' destruction

What was the Pugachev Rebellion? Was it successful, why/why not? What was its legacy?

- The government's attempt to impose restrictions on free peasants in the border districts of the Russian Empire soon led to a full-scale revolt that spread to the Volga valley (supported by the Cossacks, independent tribes of fierce warriors who had at times fought for the Russians against the Turks but now resisted the government's attempt to absorb them into the empire) - An illiterate Cossack, Emelyan Pugachev, succeeded in welding the disparate elements of discontent into a mass revolt. Beginning in 1773, Pugachev's rebellion spread across southern Russia from the Urals to the Volga River. Initially successful, Pugachev won the support of many peasants when he issued a manifesto in July 1774 freeing all peasants from oppressive taxes and military service. Encouraged by Pugachev to seize their landlords' estates, the peasants responded by killing more than fifteen hundred estate owners and their families. - The rebellion soon faltered, as government forces rallied and became more effective. Betrayed by his own subordinates, Pugachev was killed. The rebellion collapsed completely, and Catherine responded with even greater repression of the peasantry. All rural reform was halted, and serfdom was expanded into newer parts of the empire.

What was the most important industry of the 18th century? In what two places was it mainly produced?

- The most important product of European industry in the eighteenth century was textiles - Woolen cloth made up 75 percent of Britain's exports in the early part of the century. France, too, was a leader in the production of woolen cloth, and other major states emulated both France and Britain

Why were "international rivalries" and "continued centralization of the European state" closely related concepts of this time? What pieces of evidence can you point to that support the books argument?

- The need for money to support the new standing armies, navies, and weapons of war created its own imperative for more efficient and effective control of power in the hands of bureaucrats who could collect taxes and organize states for the task of winning wars. - At the same time, the development of large standing armies ensured that political disputes would periodically be resolved by armed conflict rather than diplomacy.

Who were the nobility of Prussia? What role did they play in the military and government?

- The nobility or landed aristocracy known as Junkers, who owned large estates with many serfs, still played a dominating role in the Prussian state - held a complete monopoly over the officer corps of the Prussian army, which Frederick William passionately continued to expand - By using nobles as officers, Frederick William ensured a close bond between the nobility and the army and, in turn, the loyalty of the nobility to the absolute monarch. As officers, the Junker nobility became imbued with a sense of service to the king or state. - All the virtues of the Prussian nobility were, in effect, military virtues: duty, obedience, sacrifice. - At the same time, because of its size and reputation as one of the best armies in Europe, the Prussian army was the most important institution in the state. "Prussian militarism" became synonymous with the extreme exaltation of military virtues.

What is an autocrat? Why is Catherine the Great an example of this? How did she come to power in the first place?

- The six successors to Peter the Great of Russia all fell under the thumb of the palace guard. The last of these six was Peter III, whose German wife, Catherine, learned Russian and won the favor of the guard. When Peter was murdered by a faction of nobles, Catherine II the Great emerged as autocrat of all Russia. - an autocrat is an absolute ruler

What caused the War of Austrian Succession? Who died? Who was the successor? Why was this an issue?

- Unable to produce a male heir to the Austrian throne, the Habsburg emperor Charles VI spent much of his reign negotiating the Pragmatic Sanction, by which various European powers agreed to recognize his daughter as his legal heir. - but it was pushed aside after his death (especially by Frederick II, who had recently succeeded to the throne of Prussia). He took advantage of the new empress to invade Austrian Silesia. The vulnerability of Maria Theresa encouraged France to enter the war against its enemy Austria; in turn, Maria Theresa made an alliance with Great Britain, which feared French hegemony over Continental affairs - fought not only in Europe, (where Prussia seized Silesia and France occupied the Austrian Netherlands) but in the East, where France took Madras (now Chennai) in India from the British, and in North America, where the British captured the French fortress of Louisbourg at the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River. - By 1748, all parties were exhausted and agreed to stop. The peace treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle promised the return of all occupied territories except Silesia to their original owners.

The French and Indian War was the greatest point of contention in the Seven Years' War. What two major regions were comprised of this theatre?

- took place in North America, There were two primary areas of contention: 1. the waterways of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, guarded by the fortress of Louisbourg and by forts near the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain that protected French Quebec and French traders 2. the unsettled Ohio River valley.

How did the global economy change in the 18th century? What changes occurred that made trade in the 18th century different from the mercantilist economy of the 15th and 16th centuries?

- With the development of colonies and trading posts in the Americas, Asia, and Africa, Europeans embarked on an adventure in international commerce. This increase in overseas trade has led some historians to speak of the emergence of a truly global economy in the eighteenth century. - overseas trade boomed in the eighteenth century. - trade between European states and their colonies increased dramatically. The growing trade of Europe with the Americas, Africa, and Asia was also visible in the expansion of merchant fleets. - Flourishing trade also had a significant impact on the European economy, especially visible in the growth of towns and cities. The rise of the Atlantic trade led to great prosperity for such port cities as Bordeaux, Nantes, and Marseilles in France; Bristol and Liverpool in Britain; and Lisbon and Oporto in Portugal. - Trade also led to the growth of related industries, such as textile manufacturing, sugar refining, and tobacco processing, and to an increase in dock workers, building tradesmen, servants, and numerous service people.

Did most philosophes approve of the idea of monarchs throughout the majority of this century? How did this fit with the notion of enlightened absolutism (or despotism)?

- Yes, they believed only strong monarchs were capable of effecting the reforms society needed. Reforms then come from above—from the rulers rather than from the people. Distrustful of the masses, the philosophes believed that absolute rulers, swayed by enlightened principles, were the best hope of reforming their societies. — enlightened absolutism: an absolute monarchy in which the ruler followed the principles of the Enlightenment by introducing reforms for the improvement of society, allowing freedom of speech and the press, permitting religious toleration, expanding education, and ruling in accordance with the laws. (Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Joseph II of Austria)

Why caused Swedish power to decline in the early 18th century? Why was it no longer absolutist for awhile? What changed this in the late 18th century?

- bc of the Battle of Poltava in 1709, Swedish power declined rapidly. - Following the death of Charles XII in 1718, the Swedish nobility, using the Swedish diet as its instrument, gained control of public life and reduced the monarchy to puppet status. - But the division of the nobility into pro-French and pro-Russian factions eventually enabled King Gustavus III to reassert the power of the monarchy. he established freedom of religion, speech, and press and instituted a new code of justice that eliminated the use of torture. reforms smacked of laissez-faire: he reduced tariffs, abolished tolls, and encouraged trade and agriculture. - In 1792, however, a group of nobles, incensed at these reforms and their loss of power, assassinated the king, but they proved unable to fully restore the rule of the aristocracy.

What was the major point of contention in the European theatre of conflict in the Seven Years' War? Who emerged as the victor here and why?

- clash of the two major alliances: the British and Prussians against the Austrians, Russians, and French. - Frederick the Great was able for some time to defeat the Austrian, French, and Russian armies. At the Battle of Rossbach in Saxony in 1757, he won a spectacular victory over combined French-Austrian forces that far outnumbered his own troops. - Under attack from three different directions, Frederick's forces were gradually worn down and faced utter defeat when they were saved by the death of Tsarina Elizabeth of Russia which brought her nephew Peter III to power. - A great admirer of Frederick the Great, Peter withdrew the Russian troops from the conflict and from the Prussian lands that they had occupied. His withdrawal guaranteed a stalemate and led to a desire for peace. - The Peace of Hubertusburg ended the European conflict in 1763. All occupied territories were returned, and Austria officially recognized Prussia's permanent control of Silesia.

Was Joseph II liked and appreciated for his time? Why or why not?

- determined to make changes, enhance Habsburg power within the monarchy, reform program was far-reaching. - abolished serfdom and tried to give the peasants hereditary rights to their holdings. He also instituted a new penal code that abrogated the death penalty and established the principle of equality of all before the law. Joseph introduced drastic religious reforms as well, including complete religious toleration and restrictions on the Catholic Church. His government also supported public education, supplying textbooks and teachers for primary schools - proved overwhelming for Austria, however. He alienated the nobility by freeing the serfs and alienated the church by his attacks on the monastic establishment. Even the peasants were unhappy, unable to comprehend the drastic changes inherent in Joseph's policies. His attempt to rationalize the administration of the empire by imposing German as the official bureaucratic language alienated the non-German nationalities.

Under Catherine the Great, what territorial changes took place for Russia?

- expanded Russia's territory westward into Poland and southward to the Black Sea. Russia spread southward by defeating the Ottoman Turks. In the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji in 1774, the Russians gained some land and the privilege of protecting Greek Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire. In the three partitions of Poland, Russia gained about 50 percent of Polish territory.

How did marriage work in upper-class houses? What was the family structure or hierarchy?

- husband dominating his wife and children - In all social classes, parents, especially the fathers, still generally selected marriage partners for their children, based on the interests of the family

Spielvogel argues that "professional standing armies" were a standard feature of 18th c. Europe. What does this mean? How did the size, completion, and use of militaries change during this century?

- it is a permanent and professional army - increase in the size of armies, which paralleled the development of absolutist states - composition of these armies reflected the hierarchical structure of European society. Officers came primarily from the landed aristocracy. Middle-class individuals could enter the middle ranks of the officer corps but were largely kept out of the higher ranks. Rank-and-file soldiers came mostly from the lower classes of society. - eighteenth-century armies were partly composed of foreign troops, many from Switzerland or the petty German states - Most troops in European armies, especially the French and Austrian, were natives who enlisted voluntarily for six-year terms - Conditions on these ships were often poor. Diseases such as scurvy and yellow fever were rampant, and crews were frequently press-ganged into duty.

What were the differences of child-rearing between lower class and higher class families? How did these attitudes alter in Western Europe in the latter half of the 18th century?

- lower-class women breast-fed their own children because that provided the best nourishment, mothers might also avoid another immediate pregnancy due to taboos against intercourse while breastfeeding, served as wet nurses for children of the aristocratic and upper middle classes. - Mothers from these higher social strata considered breastfeeding undignified and hired wet nurses instead. Even the wives of artisans in the cities, for economic reasons, sent their babies to wet nurses in the countryside if they could, making the practice widespread in the eighteenth century. - In the second half of the eighteenth century, traditional attitudes began to alter. The impact of Enlightenment thought, such as Rousseau's Émile, and the increasing survival of more infants led to new attitudes toward children. Childhood came to be viewed more and more as a distinct phase in human development. One result was a shift to dressing children in comfortable clothes appropriate to their age rather than in clothes modeled after adult styles.

Describe the conditions that peopled lived in. Were they ideal? What were some features of life at this time?

- more plentiful food - death was still a ubiquitous feature of everyday life. Diseases such as typhus, smallpox, influenza, and dysentery were rampant, especially since hygienic conditions remained poor—little bathing, dirty clothes, and no systematic elimination of human wastes.

Why might some be surprised about the marriage age of couples outside the aristocracy at this time? At what age did many people marry in Northwestern Europe?

- newly married couples established their own households independent of their parents (nuclear family) - In order to save enough to establish their own households, both men and women (outside the aristocracy) married quite late; the average age for men in northwestern Europe was between twenty-seven and twenty-eight; for women, between twenty-five and twenty-seven

What two crops were the most important ones brought to Europe from the New World? Where were they primarily grown and why were they so important?

- potato and maize (Indian corn) - not grown in quantity until after 1700, both had been brought to Europe from America in the sixteenth century. - The potato became a staple in Germany, the Low Countries, and especially Ireland, where repression by English landlords forced large numbers of poor peasants to survive on small plots of marginal land. The potato took relatively little effort to produce in large quantities. High in carbohydrates and calories, rich in vitamins A and C, it could be easily stored for winter use.

Who was the first Prime Minister of Britain? What was Britain's global policy for much of the 18th century? What ambitions did they have? What setbacks did they face?

- since the second and first Hoverian kings did not speak English nor have much familiarity with the British system, their chief ministers were allowed to handle Parliament - Robert Robert Walpole served as prime minister from 1721 to 1742. He pursued a peaceful foreign policy to avoid new land taxes. But new forces were emerging in eighteenth-century England as growing trade and industry led an ever-increasing middle class to favor expansion of trade and world empire. - William Pitt the Elder became prime minister in 1757 and furthered imperial ambitions by acquiring Canada and India in the Seven Years' War. he was dismissed in 1761 by the new king, George III, and replaced by the king's favorite, Lord Bute. Discontent over the electoral system, and the loss of the American colonies led to public criticism of the king and in 1780 the House of Commons said that the influence of the crown has increased and should be diminished - King George III managed to avoid drastic change by appointing William Pitt the Younger, son of William Pitt the Elder, as prime minister in 1783. Supported by the merchants, industrial classes, and the king, Pitt managed to stay in power. - George III, however, remained an uncertain supporter because of periodic bouts of insanity

What happened to the Dutch Republic during this era? Why? (Explain 3 reasons)

- suffered a decline in economic prosperity. - Both local and national political affairs were dominated by the oligarchies that governed the Dutch Republic's towns. - the oligarchies and the house of Orange, who as stadholders headed the executive branch of government, butted heads. - The regents sought to reduce the power of the Orangists but became divided when Dutch burghers who called themselves the Patriots (artisans, merchants, and shopkeepers) began to advocate for democratic reforms that would open up the municipal councils to greater participation than that of the oligarchs. - The success of the Patriots, however, led to foreign interference when the Prussian king sent troops to protect his sister, the wife of the Orangist stadholder. The Patriots were crushed, and both Orangists and regents reestablished the old system.

What contributions did women and children offer to families of the working classes (urban workers and peasants)?

- the contributions of women and children to the "family economy" were often crucial. - In urban areas, both male and female children either helped in the handicraft manufacturing done in the home or were sent out to work as household servants. In rural areas, children worked on the land or helped in the activities of cottage industry. - Married women grew vegetables, tended livestock, and sold eggs, vegetables, and milk. Wives of propertyless agricultural workers labored in the fields or as textile workers, spinning or knitting. In the cities, wives of artisans helped their husbands at their crafts or worked as seamstresses. The wives of unskilled workers labored as laundresses and cleaners for the rich or as peddlers of food or used clothing to the lower classes.

What roles did nobles play in the 18th century social order? What privileges did they carry? What positions were they able to hold? How did their diet differ from peasants?

- the nobles played a dominating role in society - Being born a noble automatically guaranteed a place at the top of the social order, with all the attendant special privileges and rights. - The legal privileges of the nobility included judgment by their peers, immunity from severe punishment, and exemption from many forms of taxation. - nobles were expected to live off the yields of their estates. - Many were also all too eager to profit from the exploitation of raw materials found on their estates; as a result, many nobles were involved in industries such as mining, metallurgy, and glassmaking. - Their diet also set them off from the rest of society. Aristocrats consumed enormous quantities of meat and fish accompanied by cheeses, nuts, and a variety of sweets. - landed aristocrats had served as military officers. - the eighteenth-century nobility played a significant role in the administrative machinery of state.

How did the nature of warfare change? What made war of the 18th century so different from previous centuries? Why weren't they necessarily more destructive?

- war was no longer driven by ideology as the religious conflicts of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries had been - By their very nature, ideological wars are often violent and destructive. - larger armies depended on increased tax revenues, rulers regarded the wanton destruction of civilian taxpayers as foolish - costliness of eighteenth-century armies as well as the technology and customary tactics of the age created a system of warfare based on limited objectives. - generals replied on clever and elaborate maneuvers, rather than direct confrontation. A system of formalities accepted by all sides allowed defeated opponents to withdraw without being captured or destroyed. (Encouraged fortresses, roads, supplies)

What was the major point of contention in the Indian theatre of the Seven Years' War? Who emerged as the victor here and why?

- was fought in India and North America - The French had returned Madras to Britain after the War of the Austrian Succession, but jockeying for power continued as the French and British supported opposing native Indian princes. - The British under Robert Clive ultimately won out, not because they had better forces but because they were more persistent - By the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the French withdrew and left India to the British.

Why was Frederick II better known as Frederick the Great? What were his major assets and accomplishments?

- was one of the best-educated and most cultured monarchs of the eighteenth century. - well versed in Enlightenment thought and even invited Voltaire to live at his court for several years. - A believer in the king as the "first servant of the state," Frederick the Great became a conscientious ruler who made few innovations in the administration of the state. His diligence in overseeing its operation, however, made the Prussian bureaucracy famous for both its efficiency and its honesty. - He established a single code of laws for his territories that eliminated the use of torture except in treason and murder cases. - He also granted limited freedom of speech and press as well as religious toleration (had no strong religious convictions) He did exclude the Jews, levying special taxes on the Jewish subjects and barring them from civil service. Frederick attempted to improve the lives of the peasants by increasing agricultural productivity - while he well aware of the philosophes' condemnation of serfdom, he was too dependent on the Prussian nobility to interfere with it or with the hierarchical structure of Prussian society. In fact, Frederick was a social conservative who made Prussian society even more aristocratic than it had been before. reserved the higher positions in the bureaucracy for members of the nobility. Over time the upper ranks of the bureaucracy came close to constituting a hereditary caste.

What three absolutist states in Central and Eastern Europe began to play a more important role in international politics during the 18th century?

1. Prussia 2. Austria 3. Poland

What made the administration of Austria difficult?

Because of how the empire is composed of many different nationalities, languages, religions, and cultures.

In terms of continuity and change, describe features of Europe's social order that continued into the 18th century, and describe features that changed in the 18th century

Continued: - Social status was still largely determined not by wealth and economic standing but by the division into the traditional "orders" or "estates" determined by heredity. - divinely sanctioned division of society into traditional orders was supported by Christian teaching - In the Prussian law code of 1794, marriage between noble males and middle-class females was forbidden without a government dispensation. Even without government regulation, however, different social groups remained easily distinguished everywhere in Europe by the distinctive, traditional clothes they wore. Changed: - reformers argued that the concept of an unchanging social order based on privilege was hostile to the progress of society. - Not until the revolutionary upheavals at the end of the eighteenth century, however, did the old order finally begin to crumble.

How big of a problem was poverty in the 18th century? What kinds of attitudes developed (or changed over time) toward the poor? Why?

Highly visible. Both in urban and rural areas. Prostitution was often an alternative to begging. In France and Britain by the end of the century, an estimated 10 percent of the people depended on charity or begging for their food. Poor people in early Europe were viewed as blessed children of God/assisted them with Christian duty, but changed in the 18th century; Charity to poor beggars, it was argued, simply encouraged their idleness and led them to vice and crime. some "enlightened" officials argued that the state should become involved in the problem, mixed feelings prevented concerted action. Since the sixteenth century, vagrancy and begging had been considered crimes.

What is infanticide and what role did it play in Europe at this time - was it accepted, how widespread was it?

Infanticide: the practice of killing infants. - In times of economic crisis, children proved such a burden to some families that they resorted to infanticide or abandoned their children at foundling homes. - Despite being punishable by death, infanticide remained a solution to the problem of too many children. So many children were being "accidentally" suffocated while in their parents' bed that in Austria in 1784 a law was enacted that forbade parents to place children under five years old in bed with them.

What changes did the European state system undergo in the 18th century?

Monarchs ruled most European states in the eighteenth century. divine-right assumptions were gradually superseded by influential utilitarian arguments as Europe became increasingly secularized.

What are natural rights? How were they established and preserved?

Natural laws: a body of laws or specific principles held to be derived from nature and binding on all human societies even in the absence of written laws governing such matters. Natural rights: certain inalienable rights to which all people are entitled, including the right to life, liberty, and property; freedom of speech and religion; and equality before the law. - In the opinion of most philosophes: most people needed the direction provided by an enlightened ruler. (They must allow religious toleration, freedom of speech and press, and the right to hold private property, must foster the arts, sciences, and education, must obey the laws and enforce them fairly for all subjects)

Describe French economic and political policies of the 18th century. What were the successes? What were the setbacks? Who were the most important figures during this era?

Successes: in 18c economic revival as enlightenment gained strength, enlarged territories left by Louis XIV, pulled back from foreign adventures while commerce and trade expanded and the government promoted the growth of industry (especially in coal and textiles) budget was even balanced for a while bc of Fleury, Setbacks: monarchy was not influenced by philosophers, resisted reforms, French aristocracy grew stronger, enormous debt unhappy populace and five year old as king from Louis XIV, duke of Orleans immoral behavior, Louis XV decided to rule alone but was both lazy and weak so people influenced the king & control the affairs of state and undermine the prestige of the monarchy, burdensome taxes, an ever-mounting public debt, more hungry people, and a court life at Versailles that remained frivolous and carefree, Louis XVI knew little about the operations of the French government and lacked the energy to deal decisively with state affairs, As France's financial crises worsened neither Louis nor his queen seemed able to fathom the depths of despair and discontent that soon led to violent revolution Most important figures: Louis XIV, duke of Orleans (governing after Louis), Cardinal Fleury (governing after duke), Louis XV (after fleury), Madame de Pompadour (An intelligent and beautiful woman who charmed Louis XV and gained both wealth and power, often making important government decisions and giving advice on appointments and foreign policy), Louis XVI (after XV), Marie Antoinette (wife of XVI, spoiled Austrian princess who devoted much of her time to court intrigues)

How did an increase in livestock affect a) crop production? b) the European diet? c) new innovations?

a) enhanced food production by making available more animal manure, which was used to fertilize fields and produce larger yields per acre b) increased the amount of meat in the European diet c) Jethro Tull discovered that using a hoe to keep the soil loose allowed air and moisture to reach plants and enabled them to grow better. He also used a drill to plant seeds in rows instead of scattering them by hand, a method that had lost much seed to the birds.

What happened economically in many places in Europe at this time pertaining to a. Gold and Silver b. Public and Private Banks c. National Debt d. Why France didn't have a national bank e. Dutch Capitalism

a. A decline in the supply of gold and silver in the seventeenth century had created a chronic shortage of money that undermined the efforts of governments to meet their needs. b. The establishment of new public and private banks and the acceptance of paper notes made possible an expansion of credit in the eighteenth century. (The Bank of England made loans. In return for lending money to the government, the bank was allowed to issue paper "banknotes" backed by its credit. provided a paper substitute for gold and silver coins.) c. the issuance of government bonds paying regular interest, backed by the Bank of England created the notion of a public or "national debt" distinct from the monarch's personal debts. This process meant that capital for financing larger armies and other government undertakings could be raised in ever-greater quantities. d. John law tried to create a French national bank but people went overboard and drove the price of the stock to incredibly high levels, making the bank go bankrupt, leading to a loss of confidence in paper money that prevented the formation of a French national bank. e. Dutch Republic remained the leader in Europe's financial life, and Amsterdam continued to be the center of international finance until London replaced it in the nineteenth century. As Dutch trade, industry, and power declined, Dutch capitalists were inclined to lend money abroad because they had fewer opportunities at home.