Chapter 18 Types of Construction & Construction Terms

Footings

When preparing the site for a structure, the ground itself forms the bed for the structure's foundation. That part of the foundation which transmits loads directly to the soil is called the footing. The purpose of the footing is to spread the load over a greater area to prevent or reduce settling. The footing holds the entire weight of the building.

Heat Pumps Advantages and Disadvantages

- Air-to-Air - The advantage of an air-source heat pump is its simple installation and competitive pricing. The disadvantage of an air-source heat pump is that in climates with extended periods of freezing temperatures, they have large limitations. The air temperature outside is usually the lowest when the need for heat inside is the greatest, compelling users to use electric or gas heaters as back up. - Ground Source - An advantage of a geothermal heat pump system is that it typically has lower maintenance costs than conventional systems as all equipment is installed inside the building or underground. The main disadvantage is that geothermal systems tend to have a somewhat higher first cost than conventional systems.

What are the two types of heat pumps available?

Air source and ground source

Due diligence audits are typically done by a private engineer or consultant and can consist of up to four phases:

Phase I - This is the investigation phase when tests are performed and records on the property are reviewed. Surrounding properties may also be examined. Phase II - If the results of Phase I indicate there may be a problem, a more in-depth testing phase is conducted by the appropriate agency. Phase III - If Phase II shows no problems, the audit ends. If problems are discovered, the clean-up phase begins. Phase IV - During this management phase, the property is monitored periodically to check for and remediate any future problems.

Reflective

Reflective insulation, also called a radiant barrier, is a metallic foil material (usually aluminum) designed to block radiant heat transfer across open spaces. Reflective insulation is most effective at reducing cooling bills in hot, sunny climates. The effective R-value of the product will vary depending on the direction of heat flow (up, down, sideways). The foil surfaces face air spaces, reducing the radiation across the air space.

Water Heaters

- Gas hot water heaters are very popular. These units have an insulated tank where water is heated and stored until it is needed. They offer fast recovery times and can offer more economy over electric water heaters. The standing pilot light gas water heater has a pilot light which remains lit 24 hours a day, 7 days a week and consumes gas to stay lit, while a gas-fired water heater with electronic ignition only lights a pilot light when it necessary to fire the main burners. Electric hot water heaters are also storage tank units and are very popular because they are inexpensive and easy to install. - Electric heat is 100 percent efficient, but the cost per KWH of electricity is more than the cost of using a gas-fired water heater. Electric hot water heaters are also slow to recover as compared with gas-fired water heaters. However, maintenance of the electric water heater is easier as it requires very little maintenance. - Tankless hot water heaters are basically "on-demand" water heaters. When the consumer opens the hot water faucet, a flow switch senses the flow of water and the water heater fires up and begins heating the water passing through its heat exchanger. Within seconds hot water comes out of the faucet. There is no tank to maintain or worry about leaking in the future. These systems are economical and last many more years than a regular water heater with a tank. They require little maintenance. Since they are on-demand, the tankless water heater only uses fuel when hot water is needed. - Solar hot water heaters are generally composed of solar thermal collectors, a fluid system to move the heat from the collector to its point of usage. The system may use electricity for pumping the fluid, and have a reservoir or tank for heat storage and subsequent use. The systems may be used to heat water for a wide variety of uses, including home, business and industrial uses. Many people who use hot water boilers for their heat also use a domestic hot water coil in their boiler, which produces hot water for domestic use. The hot water boiler domestic coil is located inside the boiler heat exchanger and uses a constant supply of water which it heats as it passes through the coil. This water supply is separate from the water supply which is in the boiler loop. It is not the same water and has a different pressure than the water which is used for heating the home. One disadvantage of using the hot water boiler for domestic hot water production is that the boiler will also run in the summer. This adds heat to the location where the boiler is installed. So if the hot water boiler is installed in the home, the air conditioner will have to work much harder.

Federal laws and regulations include:

- The Minimum Property Standards (MPS), which is a set of HUD regulations, establish certain minimum standards for buildings constructed under HUD housing programs. This includes new single family homes, multi-family housing and health care type facilities. - Interstate Land Sale Full Disclosure Act - This program protects consumers from fraud and abuse in the sale or lease of land. In 1968 Congress enacted the Interstate Land Sales Full Disclosure Act, which is patterned after the Securities Law of 1933 and requires land developers to register subdivisions of 100 or more non-exempt lots with HUD and to provide each purchaser with a disclosure document called a Property Report. The Property Report contains relevant information about the subdivision and must be delivered to each purchaser before the signing of the contract or agreement. - National Electric Code - The National Electrical Code (NEC) is a United States standard for the safe installation of electrical wiring and equipment. It offers minimal guidelines and standards. It is part of the National Fire Codes series published by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). While the NEC is not itself a U.S. law, NEC use is commonly mandated by state or local law.

Types of Pipes

1. Cast iron - Used for underground drainage systems because of its strength and sturdiness. It can be lightweight or heavyweight, depending on the application. Iron pipes are very heavy and are prone to rusting on the inside. 2. Galvanized - Used for hot and cold water supply lines. Galvanized steel pipe was commonly used years ago for the water supply lines, but more recently it has been replaced by other types of pipe. Steel is not used for underground plumbing. 3. Copper - Used for both water supply lines and drainage. Copper lasts longer than other metal pipes. It is easy to work with and resists corrosion. Copper is used for both hot and cold water supply lines. Copper pipe can be rigid or flexible, depending on the application. 4. PVC - Used mostly in areas where hard water is a problem. PVC is plastic pipe, so it is very lightweight and inexpensive. Unlike metal pipe, PVC crushes more easily, is less resistant to heat and requires more support because it is so much more flexible than metal. Some municipalities have restrictions on the use of PVC pipe. 5. Brass - Rarely used in plumbing installations today because of its expense. 6. PEX - Ideally suited for potable water plumbing applications. It is flexible, making it easy to install and service. PEX is able to withstand the high and low temperatures found in plumbing and heating applications, and it is highly resistant to chemicals found in the plumbing environment. PEX is also very resistant to freezing and breaking. PEX systems have fewer joints and are easier to install providing a lower-cost installation over traditional plumbing materials.

Most heating systems use a furnace to heat the air and a ductwork system to disburse the heat. There are three types of air furnaces.

1. Electric - An electric furnace uses a resistance heating element to create heat directly in the air stream. Inside the jacket or cabinet will be controls, a blower, and the circuit breakers for the heating elements. Some furnaces have the breakers accessible from the outside of the cabinet. 2. Oil-fired - Oil-fired furnaces have a heat exchanger, which is the place where the fuel is burned. Oil-fired systems require a storage tank - either above or below ground - to hold the fuel that is delivered to the homeowner. Oil-fired furnaces and boilers are a popular choice in areas of the country with limited access to natural gas, such as the Northeast. 3. Gas-fired - Gas-fired furnaces have a heat exchanger to burn the fuel, which in this case is either natural gas or a petroleum gas such as propane or butane. This type of heating is popular in some states because it is less expensive and eliminates the need for oil delivery. *Oil Storage Tanks The Department of Environmental Conservation does not regulate underground storage tanks (USTs) or above ground storage tanks (ASTs) that are less than 1,100 gallons. This would include most residential heating oil tanks. However, homeowners are not exempt from reporting leaks and spills and arranging for clean-up and/or repair when they occur. Most tanks have a life expectancy of 10 to 15 years without problems. If problems occur with a tank older than 15 years, the tank should be removed or properly closed down.

BTU Ratings

A British Thermal Unit (BTU) is the amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one degree F. BTUs measure the amount of heat an air conditioning unit can remove from the room. As the BTU rating increases, so does the size, weight and cost of the unit.

Forced Air

A forced-air heating system draws room air through ductwork and a filter into a furnace, where the air is heated. The warmed air is then blown back to rooms through ductwork. A forced-air system consists of an air filter, blower, heat exchanger/element/coil, and various controls. Like any other kind of central heating system, thermostats are used to control forced air heating systems. Forced air heating is probably the type most commonly installed in North America.

What is the most common type of heating system in North America and how does it work?

A forced-air heating system is the most common. It draws room air through ductwork and a filter into a furnace, where the air is heated. The warmed air is then blown back to rooms through ductwork.

What could be the result of failing to conduct a due diligence review?

A new property owner could be responsible for cleanup costs on environmentally-contaminated property. The costs for such a cleanup could be substantial.

What is a sill plate and what does it do?

A sill plate is a wooden support member that is laid on top of and bolted to the foundation wall. This sill plate serves as the base for the wall framing.

Steam System

A steam system delivers steam to radiators or other heating elements where the steam gives up its heat and is condensed back to water. The radiators and steam supply pipes are pitched so that gravity eventually takes this condensed water back down through the steam supply piping to the boiler where it can once again be turned into steam and returned to the radiators.

Americans with Disabilities Act

ADA mandates that persons with disabilities have equal access to jobs, public accommodations, government services, public transportation and telecommunications. It prohibits discrimination in the "full and equal enjoyment of goods and services" provided by public places, including hotels, shopping centers and offices, and it applies to the lease and operation of commercial facilities. If a contractor is planning to build a new facility or modify an existing one, he or she needs to consult the ADA Standards for the specific requirements. Renovations or modifications are considered to be alterations when they affect the usability of the space, for example, installing a new display counter, replacing fixtures or flooring, or replacing an entry door. However, simple maintenance, such as repainting a wall, is not considered an alteration by the ADA. ADA also requires new multifamily housing having at least four units to be easily accessible for the disabled and elderly. ADA is enforced by the United States Attorney General. Violation can incur penalties of injunctions against the operation of a business, up to $50,000 in fines for the first offense, and $100,000 for successive violations. NOTE: Many communities also have State or local accessibility codes enforced by local building inspectors. When a local accessibility code exists, the owner must follow both the code and the ADA requirements.

R-factor

All the materials that are used in construction absorb and transfer heat. Eighty to ninety-five percent of this heat is transferred, from the warmer side to the cooler side by conduction, convection or radiation. The R-factor is the degree or resistance to the heat transfer. The R-factor of a surface determines how quickly heat is conducted across it. The larger the R-factor, the greater the insulation value. Exterior walls will usually use insulation with an R-factor of 13, floors and crawl spaces R-19, attics R-30 or higher.

Importance of Investigating Prior to Listing

Any property can have problems associated with it: flooding, foundation cracks, mechanical problems, leaky roofs, and many others. Real estate brokers do not have a duty to verify the representations made by a property owner. However, if the broker knows or has reason to know that the owner has misrepresented the condition of the property or has failed to disclose material defects, the broker has a duty not to perpetuate the misrepresentations. A defect in a property is one that would: - Have an adverse effect on the property's value - Materially and adversely impair the health and safety of the future occupants - Significantly shorten or adversely affect the expected normal life of the property if it is not repaired, removed, or replaced The sellers have a duty to disclose to the broker any and all hidden defects they know about. This seller duty also extends to buyer brokers, potential buyers, and the listing broker's subagents. Sellers typically disclose information about their property using the Seller's Disclosure Statement we discussed in an earlier chapter of this course.

A/C - Integral Systems with Forced Air

As we said earlier, forced-air heating units deliver the heat from the unit to the rooms through a ductwork system. During the cooling season the system can automatically reverse to provide cool, dehumidified air for air conditioning through the same duct system.

Batt and Blanket

Batt and blanket insulation is made of mineral fiber -- either processed fiberglass or rock wool -- and is used to insulate below floors, above ceilings, and within walls. Generally, batt insulation is the least expensive wall insulation material but requires careful installation for effective performance. This type of insulation is best suited to a standard joist, rafter, or stud spacing of 16 or 24 inches. Batts and blankets come in widths to fit securely between the wood-framing members. Some come with a radiant barrier backing. Batts generally come in lengths of 4 or 8 feet. Blankets come in long rolls that are cut to the desired length for installation. Both batts and blankets typically have an R-value of approximately R-3 per inch of thickness.

Pipe Size

Building codes dictate the minimum pressure (the lowest pressure that will allow the system to operate safely and efficiently) for plumbing fixtures. The codes also dictate the maximum pressure allowed, which is the highest pressure that will not cause damage to the system. Pipes that are too small or those that have a mineral deposit buildup prevent the pressure from moving the water to the fixtures. Pressure regulating valves can reduce and maintain the correct water pressure within the system, while a booster pump can increase the pressure if needed.

Name three types of pipes used in plumbing systems.

Cast iron Copper PVC

Which type of pipe is typically found in drainage systems? a. Aluminum b. Cast iron c. Plastic d. Brass

Cast iron (b)

Federal Environmental Regulations

Construction is also subject to environmental regulations. Most legislation is overseen by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

What does the Interstate Land Sales Full Disclosure Act say that developers must give to potential purchasers and lessees?

Developers must provide a buyer or lessee with a printed property report, which gives specific information about the property, BEFORE the buyer or lessee signs a purchase contract or lease.

Electric Heat

Electric heating in homes is usually in the form of baseboard heaters along the walls of a room, although it can be in the form of a heat pump (which we'll talk about on an upcoming screen). Electric heating has several advantages: it can be precisely controlled to allow a consistency of temperature within very narrow limits; it is cleaner than other methods of heating because it does not involve any combustion; it is considered safe because it is protected from overloading by automatic breakers; it is quick to use and to adjust; and it is relatively quiet.

Floor Framing

Floor framing consists of a system of sills, girders, joists or floor trusses and sub-flooring that provides support for floor loads and gives lateral support to exterior walls. A sill plate is a wooden support member that is laid on top of and bolted to the foundation wall. This sill plate serves as the base for the wall framing. The sill plates are the first part of the frame to be set in place. The floors of the building are supported by a series of joists. The distance between an opposing pair of outside walls is usually too great to be spanned by just one joist. So when two or more joists are required to cover the span, support is provided for the joist ends by girders or support beams. These beams or girders can be made of steel or can be several wooden members fastened together. Sometimes the main floor beam of the structure is supported by lally columns. These are steel cylinders filled with concrete. The lally columns are placed in the crawl space or basement and adjusted to the correct height. Their spacing is determined by the size and material of the main floor beam.

Heat Pumps

For climates with moderate heating and cooling needs, heat pumps offer an energy-efficient alternative to furnaces and air conditioners. Like a refrigerator, heat pumps use electricity to move heat from a cool space into a warm space, making the cool space cooler and the warm space warmer. During the heating season, heat pumps move heat from the cool outdoors into the warm house. During the cooling season, heat pumps move heat from the cool house into the warm outdoors. Because they move heat rather than generate heat, heat pumps can provide up to 4 times the amount of energy they consume. The most common type of heat pump is the air-source (air-to-air) heat pump, which transfers heat between the building and the outside air. Higher efficiencies are achieved with geothermal (ground-source or water-source) heat pumps, which transfer heat between the building and the ground or a nearby water source.

Which type of water heater is most popular? a. Gas b. Tankless c. Electric d. Solar

Gas (a)

Hot Water System

Hydronics is the name for the use of water as the heat-transfer medium in heating and cooling systems. Some of the oldest and most common examples are steam and hot-water radiators. In any hot water system, the water is heated in a boiler and circulated by means of one or more circulator pumps. A system may be broken up into individual heating zones using either multiple circulator pumps or a single pump and electrically operated zone valves.

Federal Standards, Laws, and Regulations

If a property is built with any money from a federal program, such as the Veterans Administration (VA) or the Federal Housing Administration (FHA), the property must be approved in advance and inspected by the proper agency as the construction progresses.

balloon construction

In balloon-frame construction, exterior wall studs continue through the first and second stories. First floor joists and exterior wall studs both bear on the anchored sill. This type of construction is not widely used today.

platform construction

In platform-frame construction, first floor joists are completely covered with sub-flooring to form a platform upon which exterior walls and interior partitions are erected. This is the type of construction most generally used in home building.

post and beam construction

In this framing method, wider beams are spaced up to eight feet apart. Floors and roofs are covered with 2-inch planks. These serve as sub-flooring and roof sheathing, and, where tongue-and-grooved planking is used, provide an attractive finished floor and ceiling. The ends of the floor and roof beams are supported on posts which provide the wall framing. Supplementary framing between posts permits attachment of wall sheathing and exterior sidings.

Electrical Systems - Responsibilities

It is the responsibility of the utility company to bring the electricity to the building's service drop (the place where above ground cables connect to the building) or service lateral (the place where underground cables connect to the building). The owner of the property is responsible for taking care of all other parts of the service. This includes inside wiring, the service panel, fuses and in some cases the electric meter.

What are the different types of insulation?

Loose fill batts and blankets rigid board spray foam reflective

Loose-Fill

Loose-fill insulation includes loose fibers or fiber pellets that are poured or blown into building cavities or attics using special equipment. It generally costs more than batt insulation. However, it usually fills nooks and crannies easier, reduces air leakage better, and provides better sound insulation than batt-type insulation. Cellulose fiber, made from recycled newspapers, is chemically treated for fire and moisture resistance. It can be installed in walls, floors or attics using a dry-pack process or a moist-spray technique. Fiberglass and rock wool loose-fill insulation provide full coverage with a system that involves blowing insulation into open stud cavities behind a net. Loose-fill insulation typically has a value of approximately R-3 to R-4 per inch. Cellulose fiber has approximately 30% more insulating value than loose-fill rock wool for the same number of inches installed.

Life Expectancies

Most central air conditioning units can be expected to last about 15-20 years. However this number may be affected by the climate in the geographical location of the unit. For example, a central air conditioning unit in Florida probably has a life expectancy of closer to 10 years.

What are the three types of frame construction?

Platform Balloon Post and Beam

Which is the most common type of framing for residential construction? a. Balloon b. Platform c. Stud d. Post and beam

Platform (b)

Heating Systems

Residential heating systems typically fall into one of these categories: hot water, steam, forced air or electric.

What type of insulation is used for work on flat roofs, on basement walls, as perimeter insulation at concrete slab edges, and in cathedral ceilings? a. Rigid board insulation b. Spray foam insulation c. Batt and blanket insulation d. Reflective insulation

Rigid board insulation (a)

Rigid Board

Rigid board insulation is commonly made from fiberglass, polystyrene, or polyurethane and comes in a variety of thicknesses with a high insulating value of approximately R-4 to R-8 per inch. This type of insulation is used for work on flat roofs, on basement walls and as perimeter insulation at concrete slab edges, and in cathedral ceilings. For interior applications it must be covered with 1/2-inch gypsum board or other building-code approved material for fire safety. For exterior applications it must be covered with weather-proof facing.

Roof Framing

Roof construction must be strong enough to withstand anticipated snow and wind loads. Framing members must be securely fastened to each other, to sheathing and to exterior walls to enable the roof system to serve as a structural unit A roof rafter is a structural member which supports the roof of the building. Carpenters build rafters to frame the pitch or slope of the roof. The roof ridge beam is the highest part of the frame and forms the top line of the roof. The rafters are attached to the ridge beam at the peak of the roof. The roof sheathing is made up of wood structural panels or 1-inch board lumber which provides a solid base for roof coverings. Structural panels are manufactured in various thicknesses and are usually 4'x8' in surface dimension. Recommended spans, spacing between panel edges, and the board thickness are stamped on the panel face. Structural panels are installed with the long dimension perpendicular to rafters and with the panel continuous over two or more spans.

A __________ is a wooden support member that is laid on top of and bolted to the foundation wall. a. Bearing wall b. Sill plate c. Girder d. Header

Sill plate (b)

__________ insulation is a two-part liquid containing a polymer and a foaming agent. a. Reflective b. Spray foam c. Rigid board d. Batt and blanket

Spray foam (b)

Spray Foam

Spray foam insulation is a two-part liquid containing a polymer (such as polyurethane or modified urethane) and a foaming agent. The liquid is sprayed through a nozzle into wall, ceiling, and floor cavities. As it is applied it expands into a solid cellular plastic with millions of tiny air-filled cells that fill every nook and cranny. Spray foam insulation should be applied by a professional using special equipment to meter, mix, and spray into place. Spray foam insulation is commonly used for retrofits; it is good for irregularly shaped areas and around obstructions Spray foam materials cost more than traditional batt insulation. However, since spray foam provides both insulation and an air barrier, it can be cost competitive with batt insulation because it eliminates the steps for air-tightness detailing, such as caulking, applying housewrap and vapor barrier, and taping joints.

Plumbing Systems

Structural plumbing is actually made up of two systems: the water system that comes into the home for drinking, cooking and washing and the drainage system for wastewater. Building codes specify how each system must be installed.

In platform framing, what are the members called that frame the structure? a. Studs b. Beams c. Joists d. Rafters

Studs (a)

What does a footing do?

Supports the entire weight of a structure.

What does the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 require?

That an environmental impact statement be filed with the appropriate state or local agency before implementing any new construction or development

The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986

The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986 expanded the definition of the individuals who would be responsible for cleanup costs. The principle purpose for the Superfund is to clean up hazardous waste dumps and to respond to spills of hazardous materials. CERCLA provides the EPA with the means to respond promptly and effectively in the case of environmental contamination.

A/C - Major Components

The air-conditioning unit pumps liquid refrigerant (a liquid that cools something) into the air-handling unit (AHU), the unit inside the home that generates heated or cooled air. The most common refrigerant used in air conditioners is Freon. The AHU generates cool air and forces it through the home through the ductwork and into rooms. The ductwork system also returns air from the rooms back into the AHU for re-circulation. Meanwhile, the slightly warmed refrigerant travels back outside to the air conditioner, where it's cooled and re-circulated.

Air-Cooled and Water-Cooled Systems

The difference between air-cooled and water-cooled units is the method used to condense the refrigerant as it leaves the compressor. Air-cooled units use air as the condensing medium and have a fan that moves the air over the coils. Water-cooled units use water as the condensing medium and use a pump to circulate the water through the condenser and out to a cooling tower. Air-cooled units typically cost less to purchase and maintain because they do not require a cooling tower, pumps and condenser water chemical treatment. However, water-cooled units are generally much less expensive to operate because they can take advantage of lower condensing temperatures.

Amperage

The electrical capacity needed for a particular structure is determined when it is built. Amperage needed is dependent on the electrical usage projected for the building. Watts or kilowatts divided by voltage is amperage. Amperage capacity is determined by size of the conductor coming into the building and the main circuit breaker. If the wire size or service is not strong enough for the building's needs, the circuits can overheat, resulting in blown fuses or tripped circuit breakers. A fuse is a protective device containing a wire that melts and breaks the circuit when the current exceeds a certain value. Melted or "blown" fuses can be replaced with new ones. A circuit breaker is an automatic switch that stops the flow of electric current in a suddenly overloaded or otherwise abnormally stressed electric circuit. Circuit breakers "trip." Unlike fuses, they don't need to be replaced, just reset.

Foundation Walls

The foundation wall sits on top of the footing and is usually about 8 inches wide and made of poured concrete or concrete blocks. If the area between the foundation walls has been excavated deeply enough to provide head room, then a basement has been created. If the foundation area is only partially excavated, then what results is called a crawl space. The National Building Code requires that the foundation wall of a basement or crawl space and floors that come in contact with soil be treated for ground and surface water seepage by the placement of a vapor barrier. A vapor barrier is most often a plastic sheet that keeps moisture from passing through a wall. In addition, state codes may require that the vapor barrier and/or the area beneath be treated for termites. This requirement is dependent on local conditions.

Wall Finishing

The high resistance of wood frame construction to hurricane, earthquake and other natural forces is provided when wood sheathing is nailed to the outside edges of exterior wall studs, plates and headers. Wall sheathing includes plywood, particleboard and other structural panels such as wafer-board, oriented-strand board, structural insulation board and one-inch board lumber. This sheathing must be applied in strict accordance with manufacturer's nailing requirements to provide a rigid, yet resilient, wood frame system. Some structural panels function as both sheathing and siding. Siding can also be metal or vinyl. For interior wall finishing, contractors use plasterboard, wallboard or sheetrock.

Electrical Systems

The installation of an electrical system should take into consideration both present day and future needs. The standard service is 120/240 volts of electricity. The electricity is brought into the building through a system of outside cables which can be either above ground or below ground.

Identifying Amperage

The panel where the fuses or circuit breakers are located may have an amperage rating written on it. However, the only sure way to know the service size is by looking at the service entrance cables for a size indication. The number of fuses or circuit breakers is not an indicator of size, although each fuse or breaker can be identified as to the number of amps it can carry. This rating is specified in the National Electric Code.

What is the principle purpose of the Superfund that was created by CERCLA?

The principle purpose for the Superfund is to clean up hazardous waste dumps and to respond to spills of hazardous materials

Types of Insulation

There are several categories of insulation: loose fill, batts and blankets, rigid board, spray foam and reflective.

The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) of 1980

This act created a tax on the chemical and petroleum industries and provided broad Federal authority to respond directly to releases or threatened releases of hazardous substances that may endanger public health or the environment. CERCLA is best known for its creation of the "Superfund."

Residential Lead-Based Paint Hazard Reduction Act of 1992

This act outlines the procedures for disclosing the presence of lead-based paint when selling residential properties built before 1978.

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969

This act requires that an environmental impact statement be filed with the appropriate state or local agency before implementing any new construction or development. This procedure helps to ensure that the proposed project will not have a negative impact on the environment.

Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)

This act was originally passed by Congress in 1974 to protect public health by regulating the nation's public drinking water supply. SDWA authorizes the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to set national health-based standards for drinking water to protect against both naturally-occurring and man-made contaminants that may be found in drinking water. The EPA, the individual states, and water systems then work together to make sure that these standards are met.

The Clean Air Act of 1990

Under the Clean Air Act, EPA sets limits on certain air pollutants, including setting limits on how much can be in the air anywhere in the United States. This helps to ensure basic health and environmental protection from air pollution for all Americans. The Clean Air Act also gives EPA the authority to limit emissions of air pollutants coming from sources like chemical plants, utilities, and steel mills. Individual states or tribes may have stronger air pollution laws, but they may not have weaker pollution limits than those set by EPA.EPA must approve state, tribal, and local agency plans for reducing air pollution. If a plan does not meet the necessary requirements, EPA can issue sanctions against the state and, if necessary, take over enforcing the Clean Air Act in that area.

Ventilation

Ventilation is the intentional movement of air from outside a building to the inside. Ventilation air is that air used for providing acceptable indoor air quality. When people or animals are present in buildings, ventilation air is necessary to dilute odors and limit the concentration of carbon dioxide and airborne pollutants. Ventilation air is often delivered to spaces by mechanical systems which may also heat, cool, humidify and dehumidify the space. Many heating and cooling systems are referred to as HVAC systems. The acronym HVAC means heating, ventilation, and air conditioning. Ventilation systems have exhaust fans and ducts to remove stale air from the building, while introducing fresh air to replace what has been exhausted.

What is the difference between voltage and amperage?

Voltage is a measure of how much pressure the electrons in a circuit are under. Amperage is a measure of the amount of electrons moving through the circuit.

Electrical Systems - Voltage and Amperage

Voltage is a measure of how much pressure the electrons in a circuit are under. Amperage is a measure of the amount of electrons moving through the circuit. For example, when a light is on, there is a voltage across the filament of the bulb that is pushing amperage through the circuit. When the switch is off there is voltage across the switch, but there is no current flowing because it is "blocked" by the switch. Most of the time you can identify whether an appliance, a tool or a fixture, such as a lamp, is 110 or 220 by looking at a tag that is attached to the appliance or fixture. Also, the plugs and receptacles for the two types of voltage are different. In most cases, 110 volt plugs have either two straight prongs or three straight prongs, while 220 plugs have three prongs, one straight and two that are L-shaped.

Venting Requirements

Water and wastes are carried from the kitchen, laundry and bathroom fixtures through a system of pipes that lead to the main structure drain. A venting system is made up of pipes that allow air to flow to and from the drainage system. The vent system allows gases and odors to circulate up through the system and escape into the outside air. Every plumbing fixture should be connected to a vent pipe that leads to a roof vent pipe. The local building code dictates the venting requirements.

Roof Finishing

When roof rafters are installed, they typically extend beyond the structure walls to form an overhang. The overhangs are called eaves. The eaves are the lowest part of the roof. The contractor then installs a thin impermeable material called flashing to prevent water penetration and/or provide water drainage between the roof and the walls. Flashing is often installed over exterior door openings and windows as well. The term fascia is used to describe the vertical "fascia board" which caps the end of rafters outside the building. The fascia can be used to hold the rain gutter. The finished surface below the fascia and rafters is called the soffit.

Slab-on-Grade Construction

When the ground at a building site is level, the developer can use a slab-on-grade foundation. The slab is probably the easiest foundation to build. It is a flat concrete pad poured directly on the ground. It takes very little site preparation, very little formwork for the concrete and very little labor to create. It works well in warmer climates, but it has problems in the north because the ground freezes in the winter. At worst, this freezing can shift the slab. And it can result in cold floors in the winter. Around the edge of the slab, the concrete forms a beam that is perhaps 2 feet deep. The rest of the slab is 4 or 6 inches thick. A 4- or 6-inch layer of gravel lies beneath the slab. A 4-millimeter sheet of plastic lies between the concrete and the gravel to keep moisture out. Embedded in the concrete is 6-inch by 6-inch wire mesh and steel reinforcing bars. This kind of foundation is often referred to as a floating slab. It "floats" on the soil, with the deeper concrete around the edge holding it in place. In northern climates, the concrete around the edge has to extend deep enough to remain below the frost line in winter.

Wood Framing

Wood framing refers to the framework of the structure. The exterior framing must be large enough and strong enough to support floor and roof loads. The walls must also resist lateral wind loads and, in some locations, earthquake forces. The pieces of wood that are used in this framing are called studs. Studs in exterior walls of one and two-story buildings are at least 2 x 4 inches with the 4-inch dimension forming the basic wall thickness. Stud spacing is normally 16 inches in exterior walls, although 24-inch spacing of 2x4 studs is acceptable in one-story buildings if wall sheathing or siding is of adequate thickness to bridge across studs. In three-story buildings studs in the bottom story are at least nominal 3x4 or 2x6 inches and may not exceed 16-inch spacing. Studs are arranged in multiples at corners and partition intersections to provide for rigid attachment of sheathing, siding and interior wall finish materials. These same size studs when used horizontally to frame floors and ceilings are called joists. Studs used to frame the roofing system are called rafters.

Walls that support the ceiling and the roof are called a. non-bearing walls. b. bearing walls. c. eaves. d. headers.

bearing walls (b)

Ventilation air is the air used for providing a. pure oxygen air. b. only cool air. c. acceptable indoor air quality. d. enough carbon dioxide to breathe.

acceptable indoor air quality (c)

Studs used to frame the roofing system are called a. slabs. b. rafters. c. girders. d. sill plates.

rafters (b)

The part of the foundation which transmits loads directly to the soil is called a. the basement. b. the stud. c. the transmitter. d. the footing.

the footing (d)

The slope of the roof is also known as a. the angle. b. the sheath. c. the pitch. d. the ridge beam.

tthe pitch. (c)