Chapter 21 Study Guide

17th century Europe

17th century was a period of great upheaval in Europe. Religious and territorial conflicts between states led to almost continuous warfare. This caused governments to build large armies and put heavier taxes on the population that was already suffering. In response, monarchs imposed order by increasing their own power. They government everything from religious worships to social gatherings. They also created new government bureaucracies to control the countries economic life. Their ultimate goal was to free themselves from any limitations from nobility and representative bodies.

How does a constitutional monarchy differ from an absolute monarchy?

A constitutional monarchy is different from an absolute monarchy, because in an absolute monarchy the power is in one person's hands. Absolute monarchs have all the power within their state's boundaries. In a constitutional monarchy the ruler's power is limited by laws. There's one ruler, but the power is limited because of the laws so they're not absolute monarchs.

What countries were allies during the Seven Years' War?

Austria, France Russia, and others were allied against Britain and Prussia. Before that Austria and Britain were allies against France and Prussia. During the Seven Years' War Austria and Prussia switched allies and Russia for the first time played a role in European affairs.

What did Cromwell's rule have in common with an absolute monarchy?

Cromwell abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords in 1649. He established a commonwealth, a republican form of government. And in 1653 he sent home the remaining members of Parliament. Cromwell's associate John Lambert drafted a constitution, the first written constitution of any modern European state, but Cromwell eventually tore up the document and became a military dictator. An absolute monarch has all the power in their hands. A dictator also has all the power in their hand, but they keep the power by military force.

Europe's monarchs growing powerful

Europe's monarchs grew powerful, because of the decline of feudalism, the rise of cities, and the growth of national kingdoms. It all helped centralize authority. Also the growing middle class backed monarchs, because they promised a peaceful supportive climate for their business. Church authority also broke down, increasing the power fo the monarchs.

Habeas Corpus

Habeas Corpus was a document requiring that a prisoner be brought before a court or judge so that it can be decided whether his or her imprisonment is legal. It was passed by Parliament and in Latin it means "to have the body." Because of the Habeas Corpus Act a monarch could not put someone in jail simply for opposing the ruler. Also, prisoners could not be held indefinitely without trials.

How did Ivan the Terrible deal with his enemies during his "bad period"?

Ivan the Terrible organized a secret police whose job was to hunt down and murder people Ivan considered traitors. Using the secret police he killed anyone who he thought might be a traitor as well as his enemies.

Jan Vermeer

Jan Vermeer was fascinated by the effects of light and dark. He chose domestic indoor settings for his portraits. He often painted women doing familiar tasks. The work of Rembrandt and Vermeer shows how important merchants, civic leaders, and the middle class were in 17th century Netherlands.

Oliver Cromwell

Oliver Cromwell was the general who the Puritans found in 1644 who could win. After Charles I was executed in 1649 Cromwell had all the power. In 1649 he abolished the monarchy and House of Lords. Instead he established a commonwealth or a republican form of government. In 1653 he sent home the remaining members of Parliament. Cromwell's associate John Lambert drafted a constitution, the first written constitution of any modern European state. But Cromwell eventually tore up the document and became a military dictator. Although he was a strict Puritan, Cromwell favored religious toleration for all Christians except Catholics. He even allowed Jews to return.

What were some of the ways Peter tried to westernize Russia?

Peter the Great did many things including: 1) introduced potatoes which became the staple of the Russian diet 2) started Russia's first newspaper and edited its first issue himself 3) raised women's status by having them attend social gatherings 4) ordered noble to give up their traditional clothes for western fashions 5) advanced education by opening a school of navigation and introducing schools for the arts and sciences

Spanish Armada

Queen Elizabeth I had supported Protestant subjects who had rebelled against Philip. So, in 1588 Philip launched the Spanish Armada in an attempt to punish Protestant England and its queen, Elizabeth I. But his fleet was defeated.

The Dutch East India Company

The Dutch East India Company was a trading company controlled by the Dutch government. Their trading fleet helped the company.

What rights were guaranteed by the Habeas Corpus Act?

The Habeas Corpus Act gave every prisoner the right to get a writ or document ordering the prisoner be brought before a judge to specify the charges against the prisoner. The judge would decide if the prisoner be set free or tried. The Habeas Corpus Act made sure that prisoners were not held indefinitely and without trials. Also a monarch could not put someone in jail just because they opposed the ruler.

The Times of Trouble

The Times of Trouble was the period of turmoil that Russia experienced when Ivan IV's son died without a heir. Boyars struggled for power and heirs fo czars died under mysterious conditions. Several imposters also tried to seize the throne.

Why was the death of Charles I revolutionary?

The death of Charles I was revolutionary, because never before had kings been executed in public. Kings had been overthrown, killed in battle, or put to death in secret. But never before had a reigning monarch faced a public trial and execution.

How was the overthrow of James II different from the overthrow of Charles I?

The overthrow of James II was different from that of Charles I, because event hough an army of troops was ent into England it was bloodless, because James II fled to France. Basically, it was peaceful. There was no execution of the king unlike with Charles I. And the monarchy wasn't abolished unlike with Charles I. James ii was merely overthrown, but Charles I was overthrown, put on trial and executed.

Why would iron ore, agricultural lands, and textiles be helpful acquisitions for Frederick the Great?

They would be helpful acquisitions, because Frederick needed to feed and clothe his troops and supply them with weapons. Also, by gaining these resources through conquest he freed more of his own citizens to be in the army.

Philip II

(1527-1598) King of Spain from 1556 to 1598. Absolute monarch who helped lead the Counter Reformation by persecuting Protestants in his holdings. Also sent the Spanish Armada against England. Philip II was Charles V's son. He inherited Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, and the American colonies. Philip was shy, serious, and deeply religious. He was also very hardworking and didn't trust anyone. Philip could also be aggressive for the sake of his empire. In 1580, the king of Portugal died without a heir. Since Philip was the kings nephew he seized the Portuguese kingdom. He now had an empire circling the globe, counting Portuguese strongholds in Africa, India, and the East Indies. His empire provided him with incredible wealth. Philip was a defender of Catholicism. He believed it was his duty to defend Catholicism against the Muslims of the Ottoman Empire and the Protestants of Europe/ He launched the Spanish armada to punish Protestant Europe (fleet was defeated) and he also took up arms against the Ottoman Empire.

Henry of Navarre

Henry of Navarre descended from Louis IX. He was robust, athletic, and handsome. In 1589, he inherited the throne and became Henry IV, the first king of the Bourbon dynasty in France. As a king he was decisive, fearless in battle, and a clever politician. He adopted Catholicism. In 1598 he issued the Edict of Nantes. He devoted his reign to rebuilding France's prosperity. He restored the French monarchy to a strong position. Most people welcomed peace, but some hated Henry for his religious compromises. He died in 1610, by being stabbed by a fanatic.

The Edict of Nantes

A 1598 declaration in which the French King Henry IV promised that Protestants could live in peace in France and could set up houses of worship in some French cities. It was a declaration of religious toleration.

Constitutional Monarchy

A constitutional monarchy is a system of governing where the ruler's power is limited by law. England became a constitutional monarchy when William and Mary vowed to recognize Parliament as their partner in governing at their coronation.

Why did absolute monarchs believe that they were justified in exercising absolute power?

Absolute monarchs believed in divine right which was the idea that God created the monarchy and the monarch acted as God's representative on Earth. An absolute monarch answered only to God, not to his or her subjects. Since they believed God put them as the representative on Earth, they believed that they were justified in exercising absolute power.

Rembrandt van Rijn

Rembrandt van Rijn was the greatest Dutch artist of the period. He painted portraits fo wealthy middle class merchants. He also produced group portraits. He made "The Night Watch" portraying a group of city guards. Rembrandt used sharp contrasts of light and shadow to draw attention to his focus.

Boyars

Boyars were Russia's landowning nobles who fought fo power when Ivan IV or Ivan the Terrible was young. They fought to control young Ivan. When Anastasia died, Ivan turned against the boyars, killing them and seizing their lands.

Cabinet

Cabinet is a group of advisors or ministers chosen by the head of a country to help make government decisions.

Cardinal Richelieu

Cardinal Richelieu was the strong minister appointed by Louis XIII. He basically became the ruler of France. Although he tried to sincerely lead according to moral principles he was also ambitious and enjoyed exercising authority. Richelieu took two steps to increase the power of the Bourbon monarchy. First, he moved against the Huguenots. Even though he did not take away their right to worship, he forbade Protestant cities to have walls. Secondly, he weakened the nobles' power. He ordered nobles to take down their fortified castles. Richelieu increased the power of the government agents who came from the middle class. He also wanted to make France the strongest state in Europe. The greatest obstacle to him was the Hapsburg rulers whose land surrounded France. They ruled Spain, Austria, the Netherlands, and parts of the Holy Empire. To limit their power Richelieu involved France in the Thirty Years' War. Cardinal Richelieu was the chief of government under King Louis XIII. He achieved two difficult goals in his career: establishing absolute monarchy in France and breaking the political power of the Huguenots, or French Protestants.

Causes and effects of absolutism

Causes: 1) Religious and territorial conflicts created fear and uncertainty. 2) The growth of armies to deal with conflicts caused rulers to raise taxes to pay troops. 3) Heavy taxes led to additional unrest and peasant revolts. Effects: 1)Rulers regulated religious worship and social gatherings to control the spread of ideas. 2)Rulers increased the size of their courts to appear more powerful. 3)Rulers created more bureaucracies to control their countries economies.

Charles I

Charles I was James I's son who took the throne when his father died in 1625. He always needed money, because he was at war with both Spain and France. He dissolved Parliament several times when they refused to give him funds. In 1628, Charles called Parliament again, but they refused to give him any funds until he signed the Petition of Right which limited his power. After agreeing to the petition he ignored it. But the petition set forth the idea that the law was higher than the kind. It contradicted theories of absolute monarchy. Charles I's popularity decreased year by year, because of all the fees and fines he imposed on the English people to get money. He also offended Puritans by upholding the rituals of the Anglican Church.

Charles II

Charles II was Charles I's eldest son who was asked by Parliament to rule England. When he entered London in 1660, crowds shouted hopefully and bells rang. ON this celebration Charles II's rule began. Because he restored the monarchy the period of his rule is called the Restoration. During Charles II's reign, Parliament passed the Habeas Corpus Act which was an important guarantee of freedom. Also, Parliament debated who should inherit Charles's throne. Since he had no legitimate child his heir was his brother James who was Catholic. The Whigs opposed James and the Tories supported him. These 2 groups were the ancestors of England's first political parties.

Charles V

Charles V was a European monarch of the same period as Suleyman I of the Ottoman Empire that came close to matching Suleyman's power. He was a Hapsburg king that inherited Spain, Spain's American colonies, parts of Italy, and lands in Austria and the Netherlands. As the elected Holy Roman Emperor he ruled much of Germany. It was the first time since Charlemagne that a ruler controlled so much territory. Charles was a devout Catholic, fighting Muslims and opposing Lutherans. In 1555 he unwillingly agreed to the Peace of Augsburg. The next year he divided his empire and retired to a monastery. His brother Ferdinand got Austria, and the Holy Roman Empire. His son Philip II inherited Spain, the Spanish Netherlands, and the American colonies.

Charles VI

Charles VI became the Hapsburg ruler in 1711. Charles's empire was difficult to rule, because different people lived there like Czechs, Hungarians, Italians, Croatians, and Germans. The fact that one Hapsburg ruler wore the Austrian, Hungarian, and Bohemian crowns kept the emperor whole.

How did Jean Baptiste Colbert intend to stimulate economic growth in France?

Colbert believed in the theory of mercantilism. To prevent wealth from leaving the country he tried to make France self-sufficient. He wanted it to be able to manufacture everything instead of relying on imports. Colbert gave government funds and tax benefits to French companies to expand manufacturing. He also placed a high tariff on goods from other countries to protect France's industries. Colbert also recognized the importance of colonies which provided raw materials and a market for manufactured goods.

Diego Velazquez

Diego Velazquez's paintings reflected the pride of the Spanish monarchy. He painted 50 years after El Greco and was the court painter to Philip IV of Spain. He is best known for his portraits of the royal family and scenes fo court life. He was also noted for using rich colors like El Greco.

Don Quixote de la Mancha

Don Quixote de la Mancha being published in 1605 is called the birth of the modern European novel. In the book, Miguel de Cervantes wrote about a poor Spanish nobleman who went a little crazy after reading too many books about heroic knights. Some critics believe Cervantes was mocking chivalry, the knightly code of the Middle Ages while others think the book is about an idealistic person who longed for the romantic past, because he's frustrated with his materialistic world.

What steps did the Austrian Hapsburgs take toward becoming absolute monarchs?

During the Thirty Years' War they reconquered Bohemia. The Hapsburgs then wiped out Protestantism there and created a new Czech nobility that pledged loyalty to them. Secondly, after the war the Hapsburg ruler centralized the government and created a standing army. Finally in 1699, the Hapsburgs retook Hungary from the Ottoman Empire.

El Greco

El Greco was born in Crete and spent much of his adult life in Spain. His real name was Domenikos Theotokopulos, but Spainards called him El Greco meaning "the Greek." His art puzzled the people of his time. He chose brilliant, clashing colors, distorted the human figure and expressed emotion symbolically in his paintings. His unusual techniques showed the deep Catholic faith of Spain.

English colonization of Ireland

English colonization of Ireland had begun in the 1100s under Henry II. The country became firmly under English rule in the 1500s, because of Henry VIII and his children. Cromwell put down a rebellion in Ireland. He landed on Irish shores with an army and crushed the uprising. He also seized lands and homes of Irish and gave them to English soldiers. Fighting, plague, and famine killed hundreds of thousands.

How was Philip II typical of an absolute monarch?

Even though Philip II lost his Dutch possessions he was a forceful ruler. He tried to control every aspect of his empire's affairs. He also built the Escorial and ruled over government, religion, and economy.

Ferdinand II

Ferdinand II was the future Holy Roman Emperor who was the head of the Hapsburg family. He ruled the Czech kingdom of Bohemia. Protestants didn't trust Ferdinand, because he was a foreigner and a Catholic. When he closed some Protestant churches, the Protestants revolted. Ferdinand then sent an army into Bohemia to crush eh revolt. Some German Protestant princes took the chance to challenge their Catholic emperor. This started the 30 Years' War.

Fredrick William

Fredrick William was a 20 year old Hohenzollern who inherited the title of elector of Brandenburg in 1640. He later became known as the Great Elector and decided that having a strong army was the only way to ensure safety. To protect their lands the Great Elector and his descendants moved toward absolute monarchy. They built a standing army (the best in Europe). They introduced permanent taxation to pay for the army. The called themselves kings and weakened the representative assemblies of their territories.

Fredrick the Great

Fredrik the Great was originally known as Fredrick 11. When he came to power as king of Prussia he followed his father's military policies. But he also softened some of his father's laws. He encouraged religious toleration and legal reform According to his theory of government, Fredrick believed that a ruler should be like a father to his people. Fredrick was practical and atheistic. He also died without a son to succeed him.

Peace of Augsburg

German rulers agreed to the Peace of Augsburg which said that the faith of each prince would determine the religion of his subjects. And churches in Germany could be either Lutheran or Catholic, but not Calvinist.

What was the result of the War of Spanish Succession?

Great Britain was the big winner in the war. They took Gibraltar (a fortress) from Spain. Spain also granted them an asiento which was permission to send enslaved Africans to Spain's American colonies This increased Britain's involvement in trading enslaved Africans. Also from France Britain received the North American territories of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and abandoned claims to the Hudson Bay region.

Cabinet link

In the 1700s cabinet which was a group of government ministers developed a link between the monarch and the majority power in Parliament.

Inflation

Inflation is a decline in the value of money accompanied by a rise in the prices of goods and services. Inflation in Spain had two main causes. First, Spain's population had been growing. As more people demanded food and other goods merchants were able to raise prices. Second, as silver bullion flooded the market its value dropped. People needed more and more amounts of silver to buy things. Inflation weakened Spain's economy. And the taxes on lower classes also prevented the development of a middle class.

Intendents

Intendents were government agents whose job was to collect taxes and administrate justice. Louis XIV increased their power.

Ivan III

Ivan III was from Moscow and ruled Russia from 1462 to 1505. He accomplished several things. First, he conquered a lot of the territory around Moscow. Second he liberated Russia from the Mongols. Third, he began to centralize the Russian government.

Vasily

Ivan III was succeeded by his son, Vasily who ruled for 28 years. Vasily continued adding territory to the growing Russian state. He also increased the power of the central government. The trend continued under his son Ivan IV who became an absolute ruler.

Ivan IV

Ivan IV was called Ivan the Terrible. He became king in 1533 when he was only 3 years old. But his young life was disrupted by struggles for power among Russia's landowning nobles, known as boyars. They fought to control young Ivan. When he was 16 Ivan seized power and had himself crowned czar, meaning "caesar." He also married Anastasia related to an old boyar family, the Romanovs. From 1547 to 1560 were Ivan's good period. He won great victories, added lands to Russia, gave Russia a code of laws and ruled justly. His "bad period" began in 156o when his wife died. He accused the boyars of poisoning Anastasia. He then turned against the boyars, killing them and seizing their lands. He also organized his own secret police whose job was to hunt down and murder people who Ivan considered as traitors. He used his secret police to murder thousands of people including boyars, their families, and the peasants who worked their land. Ivan also gave their land to a new class of nobles who had to remain loyal to him or lose their land. In 1581 he committed an act that was both a personal tragedy and a natural disaster. During a violent quarrel he killed his oldest son and heir, so that when Ivan died 3 years later only his weak second son was left to rule. A period of turmoil followed with Michael Romanov becoming czar in 1613.

What were the long term effects of Ivan's murder of his oldest son?

Ivan's second son was physically and mentally incapable fo ruling, but he came czar. As a result, Russian experienced a period of turmoil known as the Time of Troubles. Boyars struggled for power and heirs of czars mysteriously died. Also several times imposters tried to claim the throne. But int eh end the Romanov dynasty was established with Michael Romanov as the first czar.

James II

James II became king in 1685. He offended his subjects by showing his catholicism. He also violated English law and appointed several Catholics to high office. When Parliament protested James dissolved it. In 1688, his second wife gave birth to a son which terrified English Protestants, because of the idea of a line of Catholic Kings. When William led his army into London in 1688 James fled to France.

James Stuart

James Stuart was Elizabeth's cousin and her nearest relative. James Stuart was already kind of Scotland and became king James I of England in 1603. Even though England and Scotland weren't united until 1707 they now shared a ruler. James inherited the unsettled issues of Elizabeth's reign. His worst struggles with Parliament were over money. He also offended the Puritan members of Parliament. He refused to make Puritan reforms except for agreeing to a new translation of the Bible.

Jean Baptiste Colbert

Jean Baptiste Colbert was Louis XIV's minister of finance who helped him achieve his goals of helping France attain economic, political, and cultural brilliance. Colbert believed in mercantilism which was the economic theory that nations should protect their home industries and export more than they import. Colbert tried to make France self sufficient. He didn't want it to rely on imports. Instead he wanted it to be able to manufacture everything it needed. Colbert gave government fund and tax benefits to French companies to expand manufacturing. He placed a high tariff on goods from other countries to protect France's industries. Colbert also recognized the importance of colonies. The French government encouraged people to migrate to France's colony in Canada. There the fur trade added to France's wealth and trade.

Real power behind the throne when Henry II died

King Henry II died in 1559 leaving 4 young sons. Three of them ruled, but they were unskillful. Instead the real power behind the throne was their mother Catherine de Medici. Catherine tried to preserve royal authority, but growing conflicts between Catholics and Huguenots (French Protestants) rocked the country.

Absolute Monarchs

Kings or queens who had unlimited power and seeked to control all aspects of society. Absolute monarchs believed in divine right.

Louis XII

Louis XII was Henry IV's son who reigned after Henry's death. Louis was a weak king but in 1624 he appointed a strong minister (Cardinal Richelieu) who made up for all of Louis' weaknesses.

Louis XIV known as the Sun King

Louis XIV was known as the sun king. He lived very well, because with every meal there was a feast. Louis kept the nobles at the palace to increase his power over them. It made the nobility dependent on Louis and also gave more power to intendents, because it took them from their homes. Louis built the magnificent palace of Versailles. It was like a small royal city. It's rich decoration and furnishings showed Louis's wealth and power. Versailles was a center of the arts. The purpose of the arts was to glorify the king and promote values that supported Louis's absolute rule.

Rene Descartes

René Descartes was a French writer who was a brilliant thinker. In his Meditation on First Philosophy he examined the skeptical argument that one could never be certain of anything. He used observations and his reason to create a new philosophy that influenced modern thinkers and helped develop the scientific method. Descartes became an important part of the Enlightenment.

Louis XIV

Louis XIV was the most powerful ruler in French history. In Louis's view he and the state were one and the same. When Louis became king in 1643 after Louis XII's (his father's) death the real ruler of France was Cardinal Mazarin. But many people hated Mazarin because he increased taxes and strengthened the central government. Their hatred led to riots in which they threatened Louis's life. so that Louis determined to become so strong that they could never threaten him again. IN 1661, 22 year old Louis took control of the government himself. He increased the power of the government agents called intendents whose job was to collect taxes and administrate justice. Louis devoted himself to helping France attain economic, political, and cultural brilliance. In 1685, he canceled the Edict of Nantes which slowed down France's economic process. He was a patronage of the arts. And during his reign, Versailles was a center of arts. The purpose of the arts was to glorify the king and promote values that supported Louis's absolute rule. (1638-1715) Known as the Sun King, he was an absolute monarch that completely controlled France. One of his greatest accomplishments was the building of the palace at Versailles.

Louis's legacy

Louis died in 1715 and left a mixed legacy to his country. On the positive side France was a power to be reckoned with in Europe. France ranked above all other European nations in art, literature, and statesmanship during Louis's reign. Also, France was considered the military leader of Europe. But on the negative side constant warfare and the building of the Palace of Versailles plunged France into debt. Also, resentment of the tax burden imposed on the poor and Louis's abuse of power would plague his heir's and lead to revolution.

How did Louis's treatment of the nobles reflect his belief as absolute monarch?

Louis wanted to control the nobles' lives so he made them live at court where he could watch them. His treatment stressed the importance that all power lied within him. He also believed he was too important or powerful to know people's names or give them individual attention.

How did Louis's wars against weaker countries backfire?

Louis's wars against weaker countries backfired, because he motivated his enemies to band together and thereby become strong enough to rival France. In the beginning he gained several towns and a region called Franche-Comle, but then his luck ran out, because the weaker countries banded together and match France's strength. The defensive strategy was used to achieve a balance of power in which no single country or group of countries could dominate others.

Maria Theresa

Maria Theresa became the empress of Austria who faced years of war. Her father Charles VI persuaded other leaders of Europe to sign an agreement that declared they would recognize his eldest daughter, Maria Theresa as heir to all his Hapsburg territories. In theory the agreement guaranteed Maria Theresa a peaceful reign, but instead she faced years of war. Her main enemy was Prussia (state north of Austria). She decreased the power of the nobility, limited the amount of labor that nobles could force peasants to do and also devoted herself to her children.

Mary

Mary was James II's oldest daughter who was also the wife of William of Orange, a prince of the Netherlands. She was a Protestant. 7 members of Parliament invited William and Mary to overthrow James for the sake of Protestantism. When William led his army into London, James fled to France. This was known as the Glorious Revolution.

Michael Romanov

Michael Romanov was the grandnephew of Ivan the Terrible's wife, Anastasia. He was chosen to become the czar in 1613 by representatives from many Russian cities. Michael Romanov becoming the czar began the Romanov dynasty which ruled Russia for 300 years (1613-1917).

Michel de Montaigne

Michel de Montaigne lived during the worst years of the French religious wars. After the death of his really close friend he thought deeply about life's meaning. He developed the essay to communicate his ideas. An essay is a brief work that expresses a person's thoughts and opinions. He believed that humans could never have absolute knowledge of what is true.

Lepanto defeat

More than 200 Spanish and Venetian ships defeated a large Ottoman fleet in a fierce battle near Lepanto in 1571.

How did Richelieu's actions toward Huguenots and the nobility strengthen the monarchy?

Richelieu moved against the Huguenots and forbade Protestant cities to have walls. By taking away their fortifications he lessened their chances that they could defy the king's orders. Richelieu also ordered nobles to take down their fortified castles. He also increased the power of government agents from the middle class. By increasing middle class officials he made the king more independent of noble influence.

Bill of Rights

Parliament drafted a Bill of Rights in 1689 to make clear the limits of royal power. In the document many things were listed that a ruler could not do like suspending Parliament's laws, levying taxes without a specific grant from Parliament, interfering with freedom of speech in Parliament and penaltying a citizen who petition the king about grievances.

Why did Peter the Great believe that Russia's future depended on having a warm water-port?

Peter believed Russia's future depended on having a warm water port, because only then could Russia compete with the more modern states of western Europe. Also, because to be able to trade and get in and out of Russia you needed a warm water port. With a warm water port more European ideas and technologies came into Russia which modernized them.

Which of Peter's actions in building St. Petersburg show his power as an absolute monarch?

Peter forced thousands fo serfs to leave home and work in St. Petersburg. About 25,000 to 100,000 people died from terrible working conditions and widespread diseases and Peter didn't even care. Also when St. Petersburg was finished, Peter ordered many Russian nobles to leave the comforts of Moscow and settle in the new capital. Basically, he ordered peasants to work there and ordered noble to live in St. Petersburg.

Peter the Great

Peter the Great or Peter I became the sole ruler of Russia or czar in 1696. He is known as Peter the Great, because he was one of Russia's greatest reformers. He also continued the trend of increasing the czar's power. When Peter 1 came to power Russia was still a land of boyars and serfs. Serfdom in Russia lasted into the mid-1800s. Serfs were treated as property. Most boyars knew little of Western Europe, because Russia was geographically cut off rom Europe. They were culturally isolated and had little contact with western Europe. Finally, religious differences widened the gap between Europe and Russia. Peter was tall and had a passion for ships and the sea. He was also fascinated by the modern tools and machines in the foreigner's shops. He believed that Russia's future depended on having a warm-water port. In 1697, Peter embarked on the "Grand Embassy," a long visit to western Europe to learn European ways. Peter ruled absolutely and his goal was to westernize Russia to make it stronger. Peter's reforms included bringing the Russian Orthodox Church under state control. He abolished the patriarch and set up the Holy Synod to run the Church under his direction. He reduced the power of the great landowners. Peter also modernized the army by having European officers train soldiers in European of 200,000 men Peter imposed heavy taxes. Peter's attempts of westernizing Russia included many things. He believed that education was the key to Russia's progress (establishing St. Petersburg). To promote education and growth Peter wanted a seaport that would make it easier to travel to the west easier. He fought Sweden to win the port on the Baltic Sea. After 21 years of war Russia won the "window on Europe" Peter desperately wanted. In 1703, they began building the new capital called ST. Petersburg. It took many years to build the city and many serfs died from the terrible working conditions and widespread diseases. When it was finished many Russian nobles were forced to leave Moscow and settle in the city so that in time St. Petersburg became a busy port. By the time of his death in 1725 Russia was a power to be reckoned with in Europe.

Why did the Dutch revolt against Spain?

Philip II raised taxes in the Netherlands and took steps to crush Protestantism. But in response in 1566, angry Protestant mobs swept through Catholic churches. Philip then sent an army under the Spanish duke of Alva to punish the rebels. For another 11 years the Dutch continued to fight the Spanish. In 1579, seven northern Protestant provinces of the Netherlands united and declared their independence from Spain. They became the United Provinces of the Netherlands. The ten southern provinces were Catholic and stayed under Spanish control (present day Belgium).

What did Philip II want his palace to demonstrate about his monarchy?

Philip II's palace, the Escorial demonstrated his power, because of the huge gates and massive walls. But it also reflected his faith, because within its walls stood a monastery as well as a palace.

Spainish netherlands

Philip had to maintain an army in the Spanish Netherlands to keep his subjects under control. Spain was Catholic and had a sluggish economy. The Netherlands had many Calvinist congregations and had a prosperous middle class. Philip raised taxes in the Netherlands and took steps to crush Protestantism. In 1566 angry Protestant mobs swept through Catholic churches. Philip sent an army to punish the rebels. The Dutch continued to fight the Spanish for another 11 years. In 1579, the seven northern provinces that were Protestants united and declared their independence from Spain. They became the Untied Provinces of the Netherlands. The 10 southern provinces (Belgium) were Catholic and remained under Spanish control.

Why was Russia culturally different from western Europe?

Russia was still a land of boyars and serfs. Serfdom lasted into the mid-1800s in Russia, longer than in western Europe. Also, Russia in the middle ages had looked to Constantinople, not to Rome for leadership. Geographic barriers also isolated Russia and Mongol rule had cut Russia from the Renaissance and the Age of Exploration. finally religious differences also widened the gap between western Europe and Russia. Russians had adopted Eastern Orthodox branch of Christianity while western Europeans were mostly Catholics and Protestants, Russians avoided them and viewed them as heretics. In total, Russia had a feudal rather than commercial economy, it had been influenced by Constantinople and the Mongols, and it followed a different form of Christianity.

Queen Elizabeth I

Queen Elizabeth I had frequent arguments with Parliament over money, because the treasury didn't have enough money to pay the queen's expenses. So, by the time Elizabeth died in 1603 she had left a huge debt for her successor to deal with. Parliament's financial power was one thing that made it hard for English rulers to become absolute monarchs.

Why didn't Spain's economy benefit from the gold and silver from the Americas?

Spain's economy didn't benefit from the gold and silver form the Americas, because whenever shiploads of silver came in, the money was sent abroad to repay debts. Philip II had to declare the Spanish state bankrupt 3 times. Also, the gold and silver form the Americas caused long term economic problems like inflation and taxes. Inflation was a decline in the value of money accompanied by a rise in the prices of goods and services. Inflation in Spain had two causes. First, Spain's population had been growing. AS more people demanded food and other goods, merchants were able to raise prices. Second, as silver bullion flooded the market its value dropped. People needed more and more silver to buy things. The tax burden fell on the lower class which prevented the development of a middle class.

Strong states forming more slowly in central Europe than in western Europe

Strong states formed more slowly in central Europe then in western Europe. One reason for that was because the economy of central Europe developed differently from that of western Europe. The economy in central Europe was still based on serfs and agriculture. Also the landowning nobles in central Europe held down the serfs and also blocked the development of strong kings. The two empires of central Europe were also weak. The Ottoman Empire started declining from its peak of power. And the Holy Roman Empire had become weakened by the Thirty Years' War.

Prussia's ruling family

The Hapsburgs were Austria's ruling power. Prussia's ruling family were the Hohenzollerns. The Hohenzollerns built up their state from a number of small holdings beginning with Brandenburg and Prussia. They called themselves kings and became absolute monarchs. Nobles resisted royal power, but the kings bought their loyalty.

Dutch Prince William of Orange

The Dutch Prince William of Orange became king of England in 1689. He joined the League of Augsburg which was made of the Austrian Hapsburg emperor, the king of Sweden and Spain and the leaders of several smaller European states.

The Dutch Trading Empire

The Dutch Trading Empire consisted of the Dutch merchants engaging in world trade, the Dutch having the largest trading fleet in the world, and gradually the Dutch replacing Italians as Europe's bankers.

English Civil War

The English Civil War was a conflict that lasted from 1642 to 1649 in which Puritan supporters of Parliament battled supporters of England's monarchy. Supporters and opponents of King Charles fought the English civil war. The Cavaliers or Royalists were those who remained loyal to Charles. On the other side were the Puritan supporters of Parliament. Because they wore their hair short over their ears Cavaliers called them Roundheads.

The Escorial

The Escorial was Philip II's gray granite palace. It had huge gates and massive walls that demonstrated his power. The Escorial also reflected Philip's faith, because inside its walls stood a monastery as well as a palace.

What impact did the French religious wars have on French thinkers?

The French thinkers had witnessed the religious wars with horror. And what they saw turned them toward skepticism, the idea that nothing can be known for certain. These thinkers expressed doubt toward churches that claimed to have the only correct set of doctrines. Skeptics believed that to doubt old ideas was the first step in finding truth. Basically, a new French intellectual movement developed, because of the religious wars.

Glorious Revolution

The Glorious Revolution was the bloodless overthrow of the English king James II and his replacement by William and Mary.

Junkers

The Junkers' were Prussia's landowning nobility who resisted the king's growing power. But in the 1700s King Frederick William I bought their cooperation by giving them the exclusive right to be officers in his army. As a result Prussia became a highly militarized society and rigidly controlled.

The War of Austrian Succesion

The War of Austrian Succession started in 1740 when Frederick started war against Austria to gain Silesia. Frederick underestimated Maria Theresa's strength. He thought that because she was a woman she couldn't be forceful enough to defend her lands, but Maria Theresa' resisted Prussian power. Even so, she lost Silesia in the Treat y of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. As a result of the war Prussia became a major power in Europe.

The Peace of Augsburg

The Peace of Augsburg allowed German princes to choose the religion for their territory. Charles V agreed to the treaty in 1555.

The Peace of Westphalia

The Peace of Westphalia (1648) ended the Thirty Years' War. The treaty weakened Hapsburgs, strengthened France,, made German princes independent, ended the religious wars, introduced the idea of negotiating terms of peace, and also recognized Europe as a group of independent states.

Gustavus Adolphus

The Protestant Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and his army of 23,000 men shifted the tide of the Thirty Years' War in 1630. They drove the Hapsburg armies out of northern Germany, but Gustavus Adolphus was killed in battle in 1632.

The Reconquista

The Reconquista was the campaign to drive Muslims from Spain. It had been completed 64 years before Philip II assumed the throne. Philip's great-grandparents Isabella and Ferdinand had used the Inquisition to investigate suspected heretics or non-believers of Christianity.

The Restoration

The Restoration was the period of Charles II's rule over England after the collapse of Oliver Cromwell's government. The period of Charles II's rule was called the Restoration, because he restored the monarchy.

Seven Years' War

The Seven Years' War was a conflict in Europe, North America, and India lasting from 1756 to 1763 in which the forces of Britain and Prussia battled those of Austria, France, Russia, and other countries. In 1756, Fredrick attacked Saxony (an Austrian ally) launching the Seven Years' War. The war didn't change the territorial situation in Europe, but it was a different story on other continents. France lost its colonies in North America and Britain gained sole economic domination of India. Basically, the British came out as the real victors in the Seven Years' War.

Thirty Years' War

The Thirty Years' War was a European conflict over religion, land, and power among ruling families lasting from 1618 to 1648. Tensions had been rising between Lutherans and Catholics in central Europe, so it would take only a spark to set the war off. The spark came in 1618 when the Protestants revolted against Catholic Hapsburg rulers. The war can be divided into 2 main phases: Hapsburg Triumphs and Hapsburg Defeats. For the first 12 years Hapsburg armies had many victories. The troops plundered many German villages. But in 1630, the tide turned in favor of Protestants. The Peace of Westphalia (1648) ended the war. It weakened Hapsburgs and strengthened France. The treaty also introduced the idea of negotiating terms of peace. The war ruined German economy. It also greatly decreased the population. Finally, the treaty recognized Europe as a group of independent states. This marked the beginning fo the moderate state system and was the most important result of the Thirty Years' War.

The United Provinces of the Netherlands

The United Provinces of the Netherlands were a republic where each province had an elected governor whose power depended on the support of merchants and landlords. They also practiced religious toleration.

War of Spanish Succession

The War of Spanish Succession was a conflict lasting from 1701 to 1713 in which a number of European states (England, Austria, the Dutch Republic, Portugal, and several German and Italian states) fought together to prevent the Bourbon family from controlling Spain as well as France. The treaty of Utrecht was signed in 1714 that said that Louis's grandson was allowed to remain king of Spain as long as the thrones of France and Spain were not united. Great Britain was the big winner in the war.

What was the significance of England's defeat of the Spanish Armada?

The defeat ended Spain's dominance of the Atlantic. It also weakened Spain greatly, but its wealth gave it the appearance of strength for a while longer.

Divine Right

The idea that God created the monarchy and the monarch acted as God's representative on Earth. Also, an absolute monarch answered only to God. Not to his or her subjects.

Skepticism

The idea that nothing can be known for certain. Thinkers of skepticism expressed an attitude of doubt toward churches that claimed to have the only correct set of doctrines. Skeptics thought that to doubt old ideas was the first step toward finding truth.

What were the major conflicts in the Thirty Years' War?

The major conflicts in the Thirty Years' War was religion, territory, and power among European ruling families.

Judging from their actions, do you think the two French cardinals were motivated more by religion or politics? Why?

The two cardinals were motivated more by politics, because even thought they were Catholic the two cardinals feared the Hapsburgs more than the Protestants. They did not want other European rulers to have as much power as their French king. So, in 1635 Richelieu sent French troops to join the German and Swedish Protestants in their struggle against the Hapsburg armies. In other words the needs of their king came ahead of the fight against Protestantism.

What effects did the years of riots have on Louis XIV? on his subjects?

The years of riots and people threatening his life made Louis XIV want to decrease the power of the nobles and become so powerful that they could never threaten him again. And his subjects let him, because they hoped a strong leader would prevent future turmoil. For many years after the rebellions the people of France accepted the oppressive laws of an absolute king, because they felt that the alternative-rebellion was worse.

What steps did the Prussian monarchs take to become absolute monarchs?

They created a stronger army (the best in Europe) of 80000 men. And to pay for the army they introduced permanent taxation. They called themselves kings beginning with the Great Elector's son. They also weakened the representative assemblies of their territories. The junkers (Prussia's landowning nobility) also got exclusive rights to be in his army. But this was all under King Fredrick William's rule (elector of Brandenburg) in the 1600s.

Louis fights wars

Under Louis France was the most powerful country in Europe. Louis fought wars during the 1660s and 1670s to expand France. in the beginning he gained several towns and a region. But then his luck ran out and by the end of the 1680s many countries united against him in the League of Augsburg. France was weakened by poor harvest, warfare, and high taxes.

Westernization

Westernization was using western Europe as a model of change. Peter saw his goal of westernizing Russia as a way to make Russia stronger. He even traveled to Western Europe to learn European ways.