Chapter 22: An Age Of Nationalism and Realism, 1850-1871

Marx was heavily influenced by the ideas of Hegel, who used dialects to make sense of history. What were dialects? What were Marx and Engels argument in the Manifesto?

- From the German idealistic philosophers such as Hegel, Marx took the idea of dialectic: everything evolves, and all change in history is the result of conflicts between antagonistic elements. - they believed that the government of the state reflected and defended the interests of the industrial middle class and its allies. - Although bourgeois society had emerged victorious out of the ruins of feudalism, Marx and Engels insisted that it had not triumphed completely. the members of the bourgeoisie were antagonists in an emerging class struggle, but this time they faced the proletariat, or the industrial working class. - Marx believed that the emergence of a classless society would lead to progress in science, technology, and industry and to greater wealth for all.

What is the "proletariat" and how were they affected by "wage slavery" referred to by Marx and Engels? What did the Communist manifesto advocate the people to do — even though it went largely unnoticed in 1848?

- "wage slavery" - when a person is dependent on wages or a salary for a livelihood. - "proletariat" - the industrial working class; in Marxism, the class that will ultimately overthrow the bourgeoisie. - both Marx and Engels were enthusiastic advocates of the radical working-class movement - the manifesto's closing words—"The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. WORKING MEN OF ALL COUNTRIES, UNITE!"—were clearly intended to rouse the working classes to action

What was the Reichsrat and what was it intended to do in Austria? How well did it represent the Hungarians?

- After Austria's defeat in the Italian war in 1859, the Emperor Francis Joseph attempted to establish an imperial parliament—the Reichsrat—with a nominated upper house and an elected lower house of representatives. Although the system was supposed to provide representation for the nationalities of the empire, the complicated formula used for elections ensured the election of a German-speaking majority and alienated the ethnic minorities, particularly the Hungarians.

The late 19th century bright new scientific developments. Describe some of the changes in the field of Biology.

- Frenchman Louis Pasteur formulated the germ theory of disease, which had enormous practical applications in the development of modern scientific medical practices - Darwin's theories of organic evolution and natural selection - Robert Koch, a German physician, developed new methods of culturing bacteria and staining microscope slides for examination. Koch and his students identified the specific organisms of at least twenty-one diseases, including gonorrhea, typhoid, pneumonia, meningitis, plague, and cholera.

How did the Whigs and Tories bring about changes (reform) at different points throughout the 19th century in Britian? What role did Benjamin Disraeli play in this?

- After Palmerston's death in 1865, the movement for the extension of the franchise only intensified. Although the Whigs (now called the Liberals), who had been responsible for the Reform Act of 1832, talked about passing additional reform legislation, it was actually the Tories (now called the Conservatives) who carried it through. - The Tory leader in Parliament, Benjamin Disraeli, was a charismatic speaker who was apparently motivated by the desire to win over the newly enfranchised groups to the Conservative Party. Political tensions over voting rights provoked massive demonstrations in 1866, and the Conservatives were forced to act. The Reform Act of 1867 was an important step toward the democratization of Britain. By lowering the monetary requirements for voting (taxes paid or income earned), it by and large enfranchised many male urban workers. The number of voters increased from about 1 million to slightly over 2 million. - Although Disraeli believed that this would benefit the Conservatives, industrial workers helped produce a huge Liberal victory in 1868.

What were new medical schools like?

- Although there were a few medical schools at the beginning of the nineteenth century, most medical instruction was still done by a system of apprenticeship. - In the course of the nineteenth century, virtually every Western country founded new medical schools, but attempts to impose uniform standards on them through certifying bodies met considerable resistance. - Entrance requirements were virtually nonexistent, and degrees were granted after several months of lectures. Professional organizations founded around midcentury, such as the British Medical Association in 1832, the American Medical Association in 1847, and the German Doctors' Society in 1872, attempted to elevate professional standards but achieved little until the end of the century.

What were the new Public Health Measures?

- Based on the principle of preventive rather than curative medicine, the urban public health movement of the 1840s and 1850s was largely a response to the cholera epidemic. - The prebacteriological hygiene movement focused on providing clean water, adequate sewage disposal, and less crowded housing conditions. Bacterial discoveries led to greater emphasis on preventive measures, such as the pasteurization of milk, improved purification of water supplies, immunization against disease, and control of waterborne diseases. The public health movement also resulted in the government's hiring medical doctors not just to treat people but to deal with issues of public health as well.

What deliberate maneuvers (there are a good number of them) did Bismarck take to isolate Austria from potential allies? Why did Prussia go to war with Austria in the first place? What was Bismarck's goal?

- Bismarck had come to the realization that for Prussia to expand its power by dominating the northern, largely Protestant part of the Germanic Confederation, Austria would have to be excluded from German affairs or, less likely, be willing to accept Prussian domination of Germany. The joint administration of the two duchies offered plenty of opportunities to create friction with Austria and provide a reason for war if it came to that. - Bismarck had no problem gaining Russia's agreement to remain neutral in the event of an Austro-Prussian war because Prussia had been the only great power to support Russia's repression of a Polish revolt in 1863. Napoleon III was a thornier problem, but Bismarck was able to buy his neutrality with vague promises of territory in the Rhineland. Finally, Bismarck made an alliance with the new Italian state and promised it Venetia in the event of Austrian defeat.

What were the events that led up to the Franco-Prussian war? Who do you believe is more to blame for the cause of the war — Prussia or France? Explain your argument using evidence from the book.

- Bismarck realized that France would never be content with a strong German state to its east because of the potential threat to French security. At the same time, after a series of setbacks, Napoleon III needed a diplomatic triumph to offset his serious domestic problems. The French were not happy with the turn of events in Germany and looked for opportunities to humiliate the Prussians. - After a successful revolution had deposed Queen Isabella II, the throne of Spain was offered to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, a distant relative of the Hohenzollern king of Prussia. Bismarck welcomed this possibility for the same reason that the French objected to it. If Leopold assumed the throne of Spain, France would be virtually encircled by members of the Hohenzollern dynasty. - French objections caused King William I to force his relative to withdraw his candidacy. Bismarck was disappointed with the king's actions, but at this point, the French overreached. - Not content with their diplomatic victory, they pushed William I to make a formal apology to France and promise never to allow Leopold to be a candidate again. - When Bismarck received a telegram from the king informing him of the French request, Bismarck edited it to make it appear even more insulting to the French, knowing that the French would be angry and declare war. The French reacted as Bismarck expected they would and declared war on Prussia on July 15, 1870.

When and how did Canada emerge as an individual nation?

- By the Treaty of Paris in 1763, Canada—or New France, as it was called—passed into the hands of the British. By 1800, most Canadians favored more autonomy, although the colonists disagreed on the form this autonomy should take. Upper Canada (now Ontario) was predominantly English speaking, whereas Lower Canada (now Quebec) was dominated by French Canadians. - In 1837, a number of Canadian groups rose in rebellion against British authority. Rebels in Lower Canada demanded separation from Britain, creation of a republic, universal male suffrage, and freedom of the press. Although the rebellions were crushed by the following year, the British government now began to seek ways to satisfy some of the Canadian demands. - the British government finally capitulated to Canadian demands. In 1867, Parliament established the Canadian nation—the Dominion of Canada—with its own constitution. Canada now possessed a parliamentary system and ruled itself, although foreign affairs still remained under the control of the British government.

Why did Prussia go to war with the Danish over the duchies of Schlewig and Holstein? How did this war conclude?

- In 1863, contrary to international treaty, the Danish government moved to incorporate the two duchies into Denmark. - German nationalists were outraged since both duchies had large German populations and were regarded as German states. The diet of the Germanic Confederation urged its member states to send troops against Denmark, but Bismarck did not care to subject Prussian policy to the Austrian-dominated German parliament. - Instead, he persuaded the Austrians to join Prussia in declaring war on Denmark on February 1, 1864. The Danes were quickly defeated and surrendered Schleswig and Holstein to the victors - Austria and Prussia then agreed to divide the administration of the two duchies; Prussia took Schleswig while Austria administered Holstein

Without unnecessary detail, summarize the major issue going on throughout the mid 19th century in the United States. What affect did this have on its connection to Europe?

- By the mid-nineteenth century, the issue of slavery increasingly threatened American national unity. Both North and South had grown dramatically in population during the first half of the nineteenth century. But their development was quite different. The cotton economy and social structure of the South were based on the exploitation of enslaved black Africans and their descendants. - The cotton economy and plantation-based slavery were intimately related, and the attempt to maintain them in the course of the first half of the nineteenth century led the South to become increasingly defensive, monolithic, and isolated. At the same time, the rise of an abolitionist movement in the North challenged the southern order and created an "emotional chain reaction" that led to civil war. - Over a period of four years, the Union states of the North mobilized their superior assets and gradually wore down the Confederate forces of the South. As the war dragged on, it had the effect of radicalizing public opinion in the North. What began as a war to save the Union became a war against slavery. On January 1, 1863, Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation made most of the nation's slaves "forever free"

What was the plan for France and Italy to defeat Austria?

- Cavour had no illusions about Piedmont's military strength and was well aware that he could not challenge Austria directly. He would need the French. In 1858, Cavour came to an agreement with Napoleon III. The emperor agreed to ally with Piedmont in driving the Austrians out of Italy. Once the Austrians were driven out, Italy would be reorganized. Piedmont would be extended into the kingdom of Upper Italy by adding Lombardy, Venetia, Parma, Modena, and part of the Papal States to its territory. - In compensation for its efforts, France would receive the Piedmontese provinces of Nice and Savoy. A kingdom of Central Italy would be created for Napoleon III's cousin, Prince Napoleon, who would be married to the younger daughter of King Victor Emmanuel. This agreement between Napoleon and Cavour seemed to assure the French ruler of the opportunity to control Italy? Cavour provoked the Austrians into invading Piedmont in April 1859.

What kinds of traits and ideals did Cavour possess? What specific steps did Cavour take to help bolster his efforts to unify the Italian states?

- Cavour was a liberal-minded nobleman who had made a fortune in agriculture and went on to make even more money in banking, railroads, and shipping. - he was a moderate who favored constitutional government. He was a consummate politician with the ability to persuade others of the rightness of his convictions. - he pursued a policy of economic expansion, encouraging the building of roads, canals, and railroads and fostering business enterprise by expanding credit and stimulating investment in new industries. The growth in the Piedmontese economy and the subsequent increase in government revenues enabled Cavour to pour money into equipping a large army.

Who was Charles Darwin? His ideas on natural selection and evolution were probably the most provocative in history. What did he argue and why was it so hotly contested?

- Charles Darwin, was a scientific amateur. Born into an upper-middle-class family, he studied theology at Cambridge University while pursuing an intense side interest in geology and biology. In 1831, at the age of twenty-two, his hobby became his vocation when he accepted an appointment as a naturalist to study animals and plants on an official Royal Navy scientific expedition aboard the H.M.S. Beagle. - Darwin's specific job was to study the structure of various forms of plant and animal life. He was able to observe animals on islands virtually untouched by external influence and compare them with animals on the mainland. As a result, Darwin came to discard the notion of a special creation and to believe that animals evolved over time and in response to their environment. - When he returned to Britain, he eventually formulated an explanation for evolution in the principle of natural selection - Darwin's idea that organisms that are most adaptable to their environment survive and pass on the variations that enabled them to survive, while less adaptable organisms become extinct; "survival of the fittest." Organic evolution - Darwin's principle that all plants and animals have evolved over a long period of time from earlier and simpler forms of life. - "as more individuals are produced than can possibly survive, there must in every case be a struggle for existence, either one individual with another of the same species, or with the individuals of distinct species, or with the physical conditions of life." Those who succeeded in this struggle for existence had adapted better to their environment, a process made possible by the appearance of "variants." - Those that were naturally selected for survival ("survival of the fit") survived. The unfit did not and became extinct. The fit who survived propagated and passed on the variations that enabled them to survive until, from Darwin's point of view, a new separate species emerged. - Darwin's ideas were highly controversial at first. Some people fretted that Darwin's theory made human beings ordinary products of nature rather than unique beings. Others were disturbed by the implications of life as a struggle for survival, of "nature red in tooth and claw." For those who believed in a rational order in the world, Darwin's theory seemed to eliminate purpose and design from the universe.

How did the role of women begin to change in the field of healthcare? Why were women prevented from entering this field at first? Who were some significant women to help change this?

- During most of the nineteenth century, medical schools in Europe and the United States were closed to female students. Make students said that "no woman of true delicacy would be willing in the presence of men to listen to the discussion of subjects that necessarily come under consideration of the students of medicine." - Elizabeth Blackwell achieved the first major breakthrough for women in medicine. Although she had been admitted to the Geneva College of Medicine in New York by mistake, Blackwell's perseverance and intelligence won her the respect of her fellow male students. She received her M.D. in 1849 and eventually established a clinic in New York City. - In Britain, Elizabeth Garret and Sophia Jex-Blake had to struggle for years before they were finally admitted to the practice of medicine. - The unwillingness of medical schools to open their doors to women led to the formation of separate medical schools for women. The Female Medical College of Pennsylvania, established in 1850, was the first in the United States, and the London School of Medicine for Women was founded in 1874. But even after graduation from such institutions, women faced obstacles when they tried to practice as doctors. Many were denied licenses, and hospitals often closed their doors to them. - In Britain, Parliament finally capitulated to pressure and passed a bill in 1876 giving women the right to take qualifying examinations. Soon women were entering medical schools in ever-larger numbers. - By the 1890s, universities in Great Britain, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Russia, and Belgium were admitting women to medical training and practice. Germany and Austria did not do so until after 1900. Even then, medical associations refused to accept women as equals in the medical profession. Women were not given full membership in the American Medical Association until 1915.

During the 19th century, laissez-faire economics contributed to a railed expansion of industrialization throughout Europe. What kinds of elimination of barriers to foreign trade enabled this growth? What role did joint-stock investment banks play?

- Essential international waterways were opened up by the elimination of restrictive tolls. The Danube River in 1857 and the Rhine in 1861, for example, were declared freeways for all ships. The negotiation of trade treaties in the 1860s reduced or eliminated protective tariffs throughout much of western Europe. - Governments also played a role by first allowing and then encouraging the formation of joint-stock investment banks. These banks were crucial to continental industrial development because they mobilized enormous capital resources for investment. In the 1850s and 1860s, they were very important in the promotion of railway construction, although railroads were not always a safe investment. - joint-stock investment banks - a bank created by selling shares of stock to investors. Such banks potentially have access to much more capital than private banks owned by one or a few individuals.

Why did Cavour's relationship with Napoleon III deteriorate?

- In the initial stages of fighting, it was the French who were largely responsible for defeating the Austrians in two major battles at Magenta and Solferino. It was also the French who made peace with Austria on July 11, 1859, without informing their Italian ally. - Napoleon withdrew so hastily because he realized that despite two losses, the Austrian army had not yet been defeated; the struggle might be longer and more costly than he had anticipated. Moreover, the Prussians were mobilizing in support of Austria, and Napoleon III had no desire to take on two enemies at once. - As a result of Napoleon's peace with Austria, Piedmont received only Lombardy; Venetia remained under Austrian control. - Cavour was furious at the French perfidy, but events in northern Italy now turned in his favor. Soon after the war with Austria had begun, some northern Italian states, namely, Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and part of the Papal States, had been taken over by nationalists. In plebiscites held in 1860, these states agreed to join Piedmont. Napoleon agreed to the annexations in return for Nice and Savoy.

What kinds of new surgical practices began to emerge in the late 1800s? What relationship did these new preventative healthcare practices have to hygiene?

- Joseph Lister, who developed the antiseptic principle, perceived that bacteria might enter a wound and cause infection. His use of carbolic acid, a newly discovered disinfectant, proved remarkably effective in eliminating infections during surgery. Lister's discoveries dramatically transformed surgery wards, as patients no longer succumbed regularly to what was called "hospital gangrene." - The second great barrier to large-scale surgery stemmed from the inability to lessen the pain of the patient. After experiments with numerous agents, sulfuric ether was first used successfully in an operation at the Massachusetts General Hospital in 1846 . Within a year, chloroform began to rival ether as an anesthetic agent.

How did Louis Napoleon successfully exert his authority over France as it's new Emperor?

- Louis Napoleon was a clever politician who was especially astute at understanding the popular forces of his day. - For three years, he persevered in winning the support of the French people, and when the National Assembly rejected his wish to revise the constitution and be allowed to stand for reelection, Louis used troops to seize control of the government on December 1, 1851. After restoring universal male suffrage and legalizing unions, Louis Napoleon asked the French people to restructure the government by electing him president for ten years - 7.5 million yes votes to 640,000 no votes, they agreed. A year later, on November 21, 1852, Louis Napoleon returned to the people to ask for the restoration of the empire. This time, 97 percent responded affirmatively, and on December 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon assumed the title of Napoleon III

What affect did Marx have in trade unions in Britain and France?

- Marx had defined the communists as "the most advanced and resolute section of the working-class parties of every country." Their advantage was their ability to understand "the line of march, the conditions, and the ultimate general results of the proletarian movement." Marx saw his role in this light and participated enthusiastically in the activities of the International Working Men's Association. - Formed in 1864 by British and French trade unionists, this "First International" served as an umbrella organization for working-class interests. Marx was the dominant personality on the organization's General Council and devoted much time to its activities. Internal dissension within the ranks soon damaged the organization, and it failed in 1872. Although it would be revived in 1889, the fate of socialism by that time was in the hands of national socialist parties.

Describe some of the changes in the field of Physics

- Michael Faraday discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction and put together a primitive generator that laid the foundation for the use of electricity, although economically efficient generators were not built until the 1870s.

While he may have been a success in France, explain why Napoleon III had a less than desirable track record with foreign policy with Mexico and the Ottoman Empire.

- Napoleon III was considerably less accomplished at dealing with foreign policy - Seeking to dominate Mexican markets for French goods, the emperor sent French troops to Mexico in 1861 to join British and Spanish forces in protecting their interests in the midst of the upheaval caused by a struggle between liberal and conservative Mexican factions. Although the British and Spanish withdrew their troops after order had been restored, French forces remained, and in 1864, Napoleon III installed Archduke Maximilian of Austria, his handpicked choice, as the new emperor of Mexico. When the French troops were needed in Europe, Maximilian became an emperor without an army. He surrendered to liberal Mexican forces in May 1867 and was executed in June. - Napoleon III was motivated by the desire to free France from the restrictions of the peace settlements of 1814-1815 and to make France the chief arbiter of Europe. In the decline of the Ottoman Empire, he saw an opportunity to take steps toward these goals. - Crimean War

The emancipation of the serfs was not without conditions. What kinds of conditions ended up keeping serfs in a state of subordination to the land-owning classes?

- On March 3, 1861, Alexander issued his emancipation edict. Peasants could now own property, marry as they chose, and bring suits in the law courts. - Nevertheless, the benefits of emancipation were limited. The government provided land for the peasants by purchasing it from the landowners, but the landowners often chose to keep the best lands. The Russian peasants soon found that they had inadequate amounts of good arable land to support themselves, a situation that worsened as the peasant population increased rapidly in the second half of the nineteenth century. - Nor were the peasants completely free. The state compensated the landowners for the land given to the peasants, but the peasants were expected to repay the state in long-term installments. To ensure that the payments were made, peasants were subjected to the authority of their mir, or village commune, which was collectively responsible for the land payments to the government. In a very real sense, then, the village commune, not the individual peasants, owned the land the peasants were purchasing. And since the village communes were responsible for the payments, they were reluctant to allow peasants to leave their land.

What is "realism" and what kinds of characteristics are expressed by this movement?

- The belief that the world should be viewed realistically - a nineteenth-century school of painting that emphasized the everyday life of ordinary people, depicted with photographic accuracy.

What prompted the Ausgleich of 1867? What were the terms of the Ausgleich? Did it resolve all of the complaints of all minorities in the Austro-Hungarian empire?

- Only when military disaster struck again in the Austro-Prussian War did the Austrians deal with the fiercely nationalistic Hungarians. The result was the negotiated Ausgleich, or Compromise, of 1867, which created the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. - Each part of the empire now had a constitution, its own bicameral legislature, its own governmental machinery for domestic affairs, and its own capital. Holding the two states together were a single monarch (Francis Joseph was emperor of Austria and king of Hungary) and a common army, foreign policy, and system of finances. - The Ausgleich did not, however, satisfy the other nationalities that made up the multinational Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Dual Monarchy simply enabled the German-speaking Austrians and Hungarian Magyars to dominate the minorities, especially the Slavic peoples (Poles, Croats, Czechs, Serbs, Slovaks, Slovenes, and Little Russians), in their respective states.

Bismarck is often characterized as the best example of an expert in the practice of Realpolitik. Why? What did the phrase "blood and iron" come to represent Bismarck and his politics?

- Realpolitik - "politics of reality." Politics based on practical concerns rather than theory or ethics. - Bismarck was a consummate politician and opportunist. He was not a political gambler but a moderate who waged war only when all other diplomatic alternatives had been exhausted and when he was reasonably sure that all the military and diplomatic advantages were on his side. - He was also quite open about his strong dislike of anyone who opposed him. - In 1862, Bismarck resubmitted the army appropriations bill to parliament along with a passionate appeal to his liberal opponents: "Germany does not look to Prussia's liberalism, but to her power.... Not by speeches and majorities will the great questions of the day be decided—that was the mistake of 1848-1849—but by iron and blood" - Bismarck went ahead, collected the taxes, and reorganized the army anyway, blaming the liberals for causing the breakdown of constitutional government. From 1862 to 1866, Bismarck governed Prussia by largely ignoring parliament. Unwilling to revolt, parliament did nothing. - Before war was declared, Bismarck always saw to it that Prussia would be fighting only one power and that that opponent was isolated diplomatically.

Describe some of the changed in the field of Chemistry

- Russian Dmitri Mendeleyev classified all the material elements then known on the basis of their atomic weights and provided the systematic foundation for the periodic law

What was the "Eastern Question" and why was this such an important issue in the late 19th and early 10th century? (Hint: consider geography, nationalism, and ethnicity in your response)

- The Crimean War was yet another attempt to answer the eastern question: Who would be the chief beneficiaries of the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire? - European governments began to take an active interest in the empire's apparent demise. Russia's proximity to the Ottoman Empire and the religious bonds between the Russians and the Greek Orthodox Christians in Ottoman-dominated southeastern Europe naturally gave it special opportunities to enlarge its sphere of influence. The Dardanelles Straights, a narrow sea-trading route connecting eastern and western Europe, was a valuable trading and military passage for Russia. Access to the Dardanelles enabled Russian warships to enter the heart of Europe. - Other European powers not only feared Russian ambitions but also had objectives of their own in the area. Austria craved more land in the Balkans, a desire that inevitably meant conflict with Russia, and France and Britain were interested in commercial opportunities and naval bases in the eastern Mediterranean.

Why didn't Britain experience revolutions in 1848 the other way European nations did?

- The Reform Act of 1832 had opened the door to political representation for the industrial middle class, and in the 1860s, Britain's liberal parliamentary system demonstrated once more its ability to make both social and political reforms that enabled the country to remain stable and prosperous. -

Healthcare also advanced during this era. What did scientists like Pasteur and Koch achieve in the latter 19th century?

- The application of natural science to the field of medicine in the nineteenth century led to revolutionary breakthroughs in health care. Clinical observation, consisting of an active physical examination of patients, was combined with the knowledge gained from detailed autopsies to create a new clinical medicine. -The major breakthrough toward a scientific medicine occurred with the discovery of microorganisms, or germs, as the agents causing disease. The germ theory of disease was largely the work of Louis Pasteur. Pasteur was not a doctor but a chemist who approached medical problems in a scientific fashion. He conducted experiments that proved microorganisms of various kinds were responsible for the process of fermentation, thereby launching the science of bacteriology. - a process developed by Louis Pasteur for heating a product to destroy the microorganisms that might cause spoilage. - he created a preventive vaccination against rabies. In the 1890s, the principle of vaccination was extended to diphtheria, typhoid fever, cholera, and plague, creating a modern immunological science. - Robert Koch, a German physician, developed new methods of culturing bacteria and staining microscope slides for examination. In 1882, his work led to the discovery of tuberculosis bacteria. Koch artificially reproduced these bacteria in animals, removed them, and re-infected healthy guinea pigs, successfully demonstrating that a specific bacterium was the causative agent of the disease. Koch and his students identified the specific organisms of at least twenty-one diseases, including gonorrhea, typhoid, pneumonia, meningitis, plague, and cholera.

Who was Auguste Comte and what was his major scientific contribution?

- The attempt to apply the methods of science systematically to the study of society was most evident in the work of the Frenchman Auguste Comte - created a system of "positive knowledge" based on a hierarchy of all the sciences and reinforced the Enlightenment's optimism in the potential of science. - Mathematics was the foundation on which the physical sciences, earth sciences, and biological sciences were built. At the top was sociology, the science of human society, which for Comte incorporated economics, anthropology, history, and social psychology. - Comte saw sociology's task as a difficult one. The discovery of the general laws of society would have to be based on the collection and analysis of data on humans and their social environment.

Who was William Gladstone and how did his ideas and policies differ from Disraeli?

- The extension of the right to vote had an important by-product, as it forced the Liberal and Conservative Parties to organize carefully in order to win over the electorate. Party discipline intensified, and the rivalry between the Liberals and Conservatives became a regular feature of parliamentary life. In large part this was due to the personal and political opposition of the two leaders of these parties, William Gladstone and Disraeli. - The first Liberal administration of William Gladstone, from 1868 to 1874, was responsible for a series of impressive reforms. Gladstone was a son of a merchant, whose father had made his fortune through trade with India. Gladstone based his policies on his deep moral and religious outrage at the living conditions of the poor. - Legislation and government orders opened civil service positions to competitive exams rather than patronage, introduced the secret ballot for voting, and abolished the practice of purchasing military commissions. The Education Act of 1870 attempted to make elementary schools available for all children. These reforms were typically liberal. By eliminating abuses and enabling people with talent to compete fairly, they sought to strengthen the nation and its institutions.

Explain Realism via examples of pieces and those who created them in literature

- The literary Realists of the mid-nineteenth century were distinguished by their deliberate rejection of Romanticism. The literary Realists wanted to deal with ordinary characters from real life rather than Romantic heroes in unusual settings. They also sought to avoid flowery and sentimental language by using careful observation and accurate description, an approach that led them to eschew poetry in favor of prose and the novel. Realists often combined their interest in everyday life with a searching examination of social questions. The Realists were writing for a new bourgeois audience, including upper-middle-class women who were now free from work outside the home. - the Frenchman Gustave Flaubert, perfected the Realist novel. His Madame Bovary was a straightforward description of barren and sordid small-town life in France (in which a woman is trapped in a marriage and driven to suicide) - William Thackeray wrote Britain's prototypical Realist novel, Vanity Fair: A Novel Without a Hero, in 1848. Thackeray deliberately flouted the Romantic conventions. A novel, Thackeray said, should convey the sentiment of reality as opposed to a tragedy or poem, "which may be heroical." - Perhaps the greatest of the Victorian novelists was Charles Dickens, whose realistic novels focusing on the lower and middle classes in Britain's early industrial age became extraordinarily successful. His descriptions of the urban poor and the brutalization of human life were vividly realistic.

Explain Realism via examples of pieces and those who created them in music

- The mid-nineteenth century witnessed the development of a new group of musicians known as the New German School. They emphasized emotional content rather than abstract form and championed new methods of using music to express literary or pictorial ideas. - The Hungarian-born composer Franz Liszt was a child prodigy and esteemed, credited with introducing the concept of the modern piano recital. Liszt's compositions consist mainly of piano pieces, although he composed in other genres as well, including sacred music. He invented the term symphonic poem to refer to his orchestral works, which did not strictly obey traditional forms and were generally based on a literary or pictorial idea. Under the guidance of Liszt and the New German School, Romantic music reached its peak. - Richard Wagner realized the German desire for a truly national opera. Wagner was not only a composer but also a propagandist and writer in support of his unique conception of dramatic music. Believing that opera is the best form of artistic expression, Wagner transformed opera into "music drama" through his Gesamtkunstwerk, a musical composition for the theater in which music, acting, dance, poetry, and scenic design are synthesized into a harmonious whole. He abandoned the traditional divisions of opera, which interrupted the dramatic line of the work, and instead used a device called a leitmotiv, a recurring musical theme in which the human voice combined with the line of the orchestra instead of rising above it. For his themes, Wagner looked to myth and epic tales from the past. His most ambitious work was The Ring of the Nibelung, a series of four music dramas dealing with the mythical gods of the ancient German epic.

Tsar Nicholas I died during the end of the Crimean War and was replaced by Alexander II. What kinds of changes did he attempt to make in Russia? Specifically, why was serfdom really bringing Russia down by the end of the 19th century?

- Tsar Alexander II, who came to power in the midst of the Crimean War, turned his energies to a serious overhaul of the Russian system. - The continuing subjugation of millions of peasants to the land and their landlords was an obviously corrupt and failing system. Reduced to antiquated methods of production based on serf labor, Russian landowners were economically pressed and unable to compete with foreign agriculture. The serfs, who formed the backbone of the Russian infantry, were uneducated and consequently increasingly unable to deal with the more complex machines and weapons of war. Then, too, peasant dissatisfaction still led to local peasant revolts that disrupted the countryside. - Alexander II told a group of Moscow nobles that serfdom could not remain unchanged and that it would be better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait "until it is abolished from below."

How did the Austro-Prussian war go?

- With the Austrians isolated, Bismarck used the joint occupation of Schleswig-Holstein to goad the Austrians into a war on June 14, 1866. - Many Europeans, including Napoleon III, expected a quick Austrian victory, but they overlooked the effectiveness of the Prussian military reforms of the 1860s. The Prussian breech-loading needle gun had a much faster rate of fire than the Austrian muzzleloader, and a superior network of railroads enabled the Prussians to mass troops quickly. - At Königgrätz on July 3, the Austrian army was defeated. - Looking ahead, Bismarck refused to create a hostile enemy by burdening Austria with a harsh peace as the Prussian king wanted. Austria lost no territory except Venetia to Italy but was excluded from German affairs. - The German states north of the Main River were organized into the North German Confederation, controlled by Prussia. The southern German states, largely Catholic, remained independent but were coerced into signing military agreements with Prussia. In addition to Schleswig and Holstein, Prussia annexed Hanover and Hesse-Cassel because they had openly sided with Austria.

Who was Baron Haussmann and what did he achieve in Paris?

- under the direction of Baron Haussmann, the medieval Paris of narrow streets and old city walls was destroyed and replaced by a modern Paris of broad boulevards, spacious buildings, circular plazas, public squares, an underground sewage system, a new public water supply, and gaslights. The new Paris served a military as well as an aesthetic purpose: broad streets made it more difficult for would-be insurrectionists to throw up barricades and easier for troops to move rapidly through the city to put down revolts.

Explain Realism via examples of pieces and those who created them in art

- a desire to depict the everyday life of ordinary people, be they peasants, workers, or prostitutes; an attempt at photographic realism; and an interest in the natural environment. - Gustave Courbet painted subjects that artists had previously deemed unworthy of painting—factory workers, peasants, and the wives of saloon keepers (One of his famous works, The Stonebreakers, painted in 1849, shows two road workers, one old and one young, engaged in the deadening work of breaking stones to build a road. Courbet did not romanticize the laborers' work; instead he used browns and grays to convey the dreariness of the task.) - Jean-François Millet was preoccupied with scenes from rural life, especially peasants laboring in the fields, although his Realism still contained an element of Romantic sentimentality (In The Gleaners, his most famous work, three peasant women gather grain in a field, a centuries-old practice that for Millet showed the symbiotic relationship between humans and nature. )

Who were King Victor Emmanuel II and Count Camillo di Cavour? Where were they from? Why were they the most likely to help advocate for Italian Unification? What state most actively prevented Italy from unifying?

- a growing number of advocates for Italian unification focused on the northern Italian state of Piedmont as their best hope to achieve their goal. The royal house of Savoy ruled the kingdom of Piedmont, which also included the island of Sardinia. Although soundly defeated by the Austrians in 1848-1849, Piedmont under King Charles Albert had made a valiant effort; it seemed reasonable that Piedmont would now assume the leading role in the cause of national unity. - Victor Emmanuel II was the new king of Piedmont, and he named Count Camillo di Cavour as his prime minister in 1852.

Although he was an authoritarian emperor, Napoleon began to liberalize his regime in the 1860s. What kinds of moves did he make to do so?

- he reached out to the working class by legalizing trade unions and granting them the right to strike. - The Legislative Corps had been closely controlled during the 1850s. In the 1860s, opposition candidates were allowed greater freedom to campaign, and the Legislative Corps was permitted more say in affairs of state, including debate over the budget. - In a plebiscite in May 1870 on whether to accept a new constitution that might have inaugurated a parliamentary regime, the French people gave Napoleon another resounding victory.

What made the first five years of Napoleon's rule in the Second Napoleonic Empire a success? What kind of authority did he have over various institutions of France?

- he reaped the benefits of worldwide economic prosperity as well as of some of his own economic policies. Napoleon believed in using the resources of government to stimulate the national economy and took many steps to encourage industrial growth. - Government subsidies were used to foster the construction of railroads, harbors, roads, and canals. The major French railway lines were completed during Napoleon's reign, and industrial expansion was evident in the tripling of iron production. - he provided hospitals and free medicine for the workers and advocated better housing for the working class. - The government of Napoleon III was clearly authoritarian in a Bonapartist sense. - As chief of state. Napoleon III controlled the armed forces, police, and civil service. Only he could introduce legislation and declare war. The Legislative Corps gave an appearance of representative government since its members were elected by universal male suffrage for six-year terms. But they could neither initiate legislation nor affect the budget.

Who was Giuseppe Garibaldi? Where was he from? What major accomplishment did he achieve?

- he was a new leader of Italian unification in southern Italy - a dedicated Italian patriot who had supported Mazzini and the republican cause of Young Italy, raised an army of a thousand Red Shirts, as his volunteers were called because of their distinctive dress. On May 11, 1860, he landed in Sicily, where a revolt had broken out against the Bourbon king of the Two Sicilies. - Although his forces were greatly outnumbered, Garibaldi's daring tactics won the day. By the end of July 1860, most of Sicily had been pacified under Garibaldi's control. In August, Garibaldi and his forces crossed over to the mainland and began a victorious march up the Italian peninsula. Naples and the Two Sicilies fell in early September.

What was the system of zemstvos? How did it operate and what was it tended to accomplish?

- in 1864 Alexander II instituted a system of zemstvos, or local assemblies, that provided a moderate degree of self-government. Representatives to the zemstvos were to be elected from the noble landowners, townspeople, and peasants, but the property-based system of voting gave a distinct advantage to the nobles. Zemstvos were given a limited power to provide public services, such as education, famine relief, and road and bridge maintenance. They hired specialists to improve farming methods and healthcare, bringing medicine and education to the countryside. They could levy taxes to pay for these services, but their efforts were frequently disrupted by bureaucrats, who feared any hint of self-government. - The hope of liberal nobles and other social reformers that the zemstvos would be expanded into a national parliament remained unfulfilled. The legal reforms of 1864, which created a regular system of local and provincial courts and a judicial code that accepted the principle of equality before the law, proved successful, however.

What was the Crimean War, why did it happen, and how was it eventually resolved?

- it was a war between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, beginning in 1853 when the Russians demanded the right to protect Christian shrines in Palestine, a privilege that had already been extended to the French. - When the Ottomans refused, the Russians occupied Moldavia and Wallachia. Failure to resolve the dispute by negotiations led the Ottoman Empire to declare war on Russia on October 4, 1853. The following year, on March 28, Great Britain and France declared war on Russia. - Although the Russians assumed that they could count on support from the Austrians (since Russian troops had saved the Austrian government in 1849), Austria remained neutral, perceiving that it was not in their best interest to intervene. Russia had to fight alone - Poorly planned and poorly fought, the Crimean War is perhaps best remembered for the suicidal charge of the British Light Brigade at the Battle of Balaklava. - Britain and France decided to attack Russia's Crimean peninsula in the Black Sea. After a two-year siege and at a terrible cost in manpower for both sides, the main Russian fortress of Sevastopol fell in September 1855, six months after the death of Tsar Nicholas I. His successor, Alexander II, soon sued for peace. By the Treaty of Paris, signed in March 1856, Russia was forced to give up Bessarabia at the mouth of the Danube and accept the neutrality of the Black Sea. In addition, the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were placed under the protection of all five great powers. -The Crimean War was the first "newspaper" war. The new telegraph allowed journalists to communicate to newspaper headquarters in European cities, while photographers and artists captured the horrors of war for the public.

Politically, socially, and economically where did Bismarck fit in Prussia? How did this, along with his background/upbringing affect his political views and how he operated when he conducted diplomacy and war?

- regarded even by the king as too conservative - born into the Junker class, the traditional, landowning aristocracy of Prussia, and remained loyal to it throughout his life - indulged heartily in wine, women, and song, yet managed to read widely in German history. After earning a law degree, he embarked on a career in the Prussian civil service but soon tired of bureaucratic, administrative routine and retired to manage his country estates. - began to build a base of diplomatic experience as the Prussian delegate to the parliament of the Germanic Confederation. This, combined with his experience as Prussian ambassador to Russia and later to France, gave him opportunities to acquire a wide knowledge of European affairs and to learn how to assess the character of rulers

Read the blue section on pages 653-654. Who replaced the liberal and nationalist leaders that led the failed revolutions of 1848? What did they manage to achieve? What is "realpolitik"?

- these goals of the liberals were not achieved by liberal and nationalist leaders but by a new generation of conservative leaders who were proud of being practitioners of Realpolitik, the "politics of reality." - One reaction to the failure of the revolutions of 1848 had been a new toughness of mind as people prided themselves on being realistic in their handling of power. The new conservative leaders used armies and power politics to achieve their foreign policy goals. And they did not hesitate to manipulate liberal means to achieve conservative ends at home.

What did reform groups like the "Land and Freedom" movement and "People's Will" movement work to achieve? What radical measures did they take and how did this ultimately affect their cause?

- they aimed to create a new society through the revolutionary acts of the peasants. The peasants' lack of interest in these revolutionary ideas, however, led some of the populists to resort to violent means to overthrow tsarist autocracy. - One who advocated the use of violence to counteract the violent repression of the tsarist regime was Vera Zasulich. Daughter of a poor nobleman, she worked as a clerk before joining Land and Freedom, an underground populist organization advocating radical reform. In 1878, Zasulich shot and wounded the governor-general of Saint Petersburg. Put on trial, she was acquitted by a sympathetic jury. - Encouraged by Zasulich's successful use of violence against the tsarist regime, another group of radicals, known as the People's Will, succeeded in assassinating Alexander II in 1881. His son and successor, Alexander III, turned against reform and returned to the traditional methods of repression.

Shortly after the revolutions in Austria of 1848, the state re-employed some pretty rigid reactionary measures. Describe some of these moves made by the Austrian governmental leaders.

- they restored centralized, autocratic government to the empire. - the only lasting result of the resumption was the act of emancipation of September 7, 1848, that freed the serfs and eliminated all compulsory labor services. - In 1851, the revolutionary constitutions were abolished, and a system of centralized autocracy was imposed on the empire. - Under the leadership of Alexander von Bach, local privileges were subordinated to a unified system of administration, law, and taxation implemented by German-speaking officials. Hungary was subjected to the rule of military officers, and the Catholic Church was declared the state church and given control of education.

What was the complicated relationship between Cavour and Garibaldi? How did their efforts and ideals either clash and/or cooperate?

- when Naples and the Two Sicilies fell in early September, Cavour reentered the scene. Aware that Garibaldi planned to march on Rome, Cavour feared that such a move would bring war with France as the defender of papal interests. Moreover, Garibaldi and his men favored a democratic republicanism; Cavour did not and acted quickly to preempt Garibaldi. - The Piedmontese army invaded the Papal States and, bypassing Rome, moved into the kingdom of Naples. Ever the patriot, Garibaldi chose to yield to Cavour's fait accompli rather than provoke a civil war and retired to his farm. Plebiscites in the Papal States and the Two Sicilies resulted in overwhelming support for union with Piedmont. On March 17, 1861, the new kingdom of Italy was proclaimed under a centralized government subordinated to the control of Piedmont and King Victor Emmanuel II of the house of Savoy. Worn out by his efforts, Cavour died three months later.

How was the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 a turning point for Prussia?

After the war, Bismarck asked the Prussian parliament to pass a bill of indemnity, retroactively legalizing the taxes he had collected illegally since 1862. Even most of the liberals voted in favor of the bill because they had been won over by Bismarck's successful use of military power. With his victory over Austria and the creation of the North German Confederation, Bismarck had proved Napoleon III's dictum that nationalism and authoritarian government could be combined. In using nationalism to win support from liberals and prevent governmental reform, Bismarck showed that liberalism and nationalism, the two major forces of change in the early nineteenth century, could be separated. - Bismarck and William I had achieved a major goal by 1866. Prussia now dominated all of northern Germany, and Austria had been excluded from any significant role in German affairs.

How did lives of laborers change during the middle of the reign of Queen Victoria (particularly from 1850-1870)?

After 1850, middle-class prosperity was at last coupled with some improvements for the working classes. Real wages for laborers increased more than 25 percent between 1850 and 1870. The British feeling of national pride was well reflected in Queen Victoria, whose reign from 1837 to 1901 was the longest in English history. Her sense of duty and moral respectability reflected the attitudes of her age, which has ever since been known as the Victorian Age

Why did Britain and France join the Crimean War?

Britain and France did this because of their concern over the prospect of an upset in the balance of power. The British in particular feared that an aggressive Russia would try to profit from the obvious weakness of the Ottoman government by seizing Ottoman territory or the Dardanelles, making Russia the major power and would enable them to challenge British naval of the eastern Mediterranean. - Napoleon III felt that the Russians had insulted France, first at the Congress of Vienna and now by their insistence on replacing the French as the protectors of Christians living in the Ottoman Empire. The French also feared the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the growth of Russian influence there.

What, according to Marx was the inevitable result of a Communist revolution?

Class struggles would then be over. Marx believed that the emergence of a classless society would lead to progress in science, technology, and industry and to greater wealth for all.

What was the new constitution for the North German Confederation?

Created by Bismarck, Each German state kept its own local government, but the king of Prussia was head of the confederation, and the chancellor (Bismarck) was responsible directly to the king. Both the army and foreign policy remained in the hands of the king and his chancellor. - Parliament consisted of two bodies: the Bundesrat, or federal council, composed of delegates nominated by the states, and a lower house, the Reichstag , elected by universal male suffrage. Like - Napoleon, Bismarck believed that the peasants and artisans who made up most of the population were conservative at heart and could be used to overcome the advantages of the liberals.

What was materialism and why did it gain traction during this time?

It is no accident that the nineteenth century was an age of increasing secularization, particularly evident in the growth of materialism, the belief that everything mental, spiritual, or ideal was simply a result of physical forces. Truth was to be found in the concrete material existence of human beings and not, as the Romantics imagined, in revelations gained by feeling or intuitive flashes. The importance of materialism was strikingly evident in the most important scientific event of the nineteenth century, the development of the theory of organic evolution according to natural selection.

In 1866, what unlikely state became an ally of Italy to assist in the completion of its unification? Why did they do this?

It was the Prussian army that indirectly completed the task of Italian unification. In the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the new Italian state became an ally of Prussia. Although the Italian army was defeated by the Austrians, Prussia's victory left the Italians with Venetia. In 1870, the Franco-Prussian War resulted in the withdrawal of French troops from Rome. The Italian army then annexed the city on September 20, 1870, and Rome became the new capital of the united Italian state.

What is "class struggle"?

Marx and Engels began the Manifesto with the statement that "the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles." Throughout history, oppressed and oppressor have "stood in constant opposition to one another."

How was the conservative Napoleon III (previously known as Louis Napoleon Bonaparte) different from the conservatives who came before him? How did he bolster his own power?

Napoleon the third was different from conservatives before him because he taught contemporaries how the authoritarian government could use liberal and nationalistic forces to bolster their power. He incorporated ideas of liberalism and nationalism to win the support of much of the people to be elected to return to conservative ways. He bolstered his own power because of his understanding of the popular forces of the day and refusal to submit to others.

Who was Henry John Temple, Lord Palmerston? Why was this era rife with conflict for members of the aristocratic and upper-middle classes in the Parliament?

Politically, this was an era of uneasy stability as the aristocratic and upper-middle-class representatives who dominated Parliament blurred party lines by their internal strife and shifting positions. One political figure who stood out was Henry John Temple, Lord Palmerston, who was prime minister for most of the period from 1855 to 1865. Although a Whig, Palmerston had no strong party loyalty and found it easy to make political compromises. He was not a reformer, however, and opposed expanding the franchise.

Late in the 19th century, social reformers like Alexander Herzen suggested some populist ideas. What were these ideas?

Reformers wanted more and rapid change; conservatives opposed what they perceived as the tsar's attempts to undermine the basic institutions of Russian society. - Alexander Herzen, a Russian exile living in London who used his radical journal, The Bell, to extol his belief in "Land and Freedom," and to argue that a Russian peasant must be the chief instrument for social reform. Herzen believed that the peasant village commune could serve as an independent, self-governing body that would form the basis of a new Russia Populism - a political philosophy or movement that supports the rights and power of ordinary people in their struggle against the privileged elite.

What were the immediate outcomes of the Crimean War on international affairs?

The Crimean War broke up longstanding European power relationships and effectively destroyed the Concert of Europe. - Austria and Russia, were now enemies because of Austria's unwillingness to support Russia in the war. Russia, defeated, humiliated, and weakened by the obvious failure of its serf-armies, withdrew from European affairs for the next two decades to set its house in order. Great Britain, disillusioned by its role in the war, also pulled back from continental affairs. Austria, paying the price for its neutrality, was now without friends among the great powers. - Not until the 1870s were new combinations formed to replace those that had disappeared, and in the meantime, the European international situation remained fluid. - Leaders who were willing to pursue the "politics of reality" found themselves in a situation rife with opportunity. It was this new international situation that made possible the unification of Italy and Germany.

What role did Florence Nightingale play in the Crimean War?

The Crimean War proved costly to both sides. More than 250,000 soldiers died in the war, with 60 percent of the deaths coming from disease (especially cholera) due to poor conditions, freezing temperatures, and a lack of food. Even more would have died on the British side if it had not been for the efforts of Florence Nightingale. Her insistence on strict sanitary conditions saved many lives and helped make nursing a profession of trained, middle-class women.

How did the Franco-Prussian war turn out — particularly for France? How long did it last and what were the terms dictated after the war?

The French proved no match for the better-led and better-organized Prussian forces. The southern German states honored their military alliances with Prussia and joined the war effort against the French. % The Prussian armies advanced into France, and at Sedan on September 2, 1870, they captured an entire French army and Napoleon III himself. Napoleon III went into captivity in Germany and then exile in England, where he died in 1873. - The Second French Empire collapsed, but the war was not yet over. After four months of bitter resistance, Paris finally capitulated on January 28, 1871, and an official peace treaty was signed in May. - France had to pay an indemnity of 5 billion francs (about $1 billion), support German occupying forces until the indemnity had been paid, and give up the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to the new German state. The French defeat and the degrading treaty angered the French and left them burning for revenge.

In the 1850s, Prussia enjoyed considerable growth in power and economic expansion. How did the following contribute to this? The Zollverein: The Prussian Constitution: King Wilhelm I (William I): Count Otto von Bismarck:

The Zollverein (the customs union of all the German states except Austria, formed by Prussia in 1834): By eliminating tolls on rivers and roads among member states, the Zollverein had stimulated trade and added to the prosperity of its members. By 1853, all the German states except Austria had joined the Prussian-dominated customs union. A number of middle-class liberals now began to see Prussia in a new light; some even looked openly to Prussia to bring about the unification of Germany. The Prussian Constitution (a constitution that had at least the appearance of constitutional monarchy in that it had established a bicameral legislature with the lower house elected by universal male suffrage. The voting population, however, was divided into three classes determined by the amount of taxes they paid, a system that allowed the biggest taxpayers to gain the most seats): this system had allowed control of the lower house to fall largely into the hands of the rising middle classes, whose numbers were growing as a result of continuing industrialization. Their desire was to have a real parliamentary system, but the king's executive power remained too strong; royal ministers answered for their actions only to the king, not the parliament. Nevertheless, the parliament had been granted important legislative and taxation powers on which it could build. King Wilhelm I (William I): He and his advisers believed that the army was in dire need of change if Prussia was to remain a great power. The king planned to double the size of the army and institute three years of compulsory military service for all young men. Middle-class liberals in the parliament, while willing to have reform, feared compulsory military service because they believed the government would use it to inculcate obedience to the monarchy and strengthen the influence of the conservative-military clique in Prussia. Count Otto von Bismarck (appointed by William when the Prussian legislature rejected the new military budget submitted to parliament in March 1862): came to determine the course of modern German history. Until 1890, he dominated both German and European politics.

Where did the idea of Marxism originate? Who wrote the Communist Manifesto and what was the nature of their relationship?

The beginnings of Marxism can be traced to the 1848 publication of The Communist Manifesto, a short treatise written by two Germans, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. -Marx was born into a relatively prosperous middle-class family in Trier in western Germany. his father to sent him to the more serious-minded University of Berlin, where he encountered the ideas of the German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. After receiving a Ph.D. in philosophy, Marx planned to teach at a university. Unable to obtain a position because of his professed atheism, Marx decided on a career in journalism and eventually became the editor of a liberal bourgeois newspaper in Cologne in 1842. After the newspaper was suppressed because of his radical views, Marx moved to Paris. There he met Friedrich Engels, who became his lifelong friend and financial patron. - Engels, the son of a wealthy German cotton manufacturer, had worked in Britain at one of his father's factories in Manchester.

Describe the growing faith in science

The steadily increasing and often dramatic material gains generated by science and technology led to a growing faith in the benefits of science. The popularity of scientific and technological achievement produced a widespread acceptance of the scientific method, based on observation, experiment, and logical analysis, as the only path to objective truth and objective reality. This in turn undermined the faith of many people in religious revelation and truth

What did Marx and Engels predict would happen in a struggle between the bourgeois and proletariat?

The struggle would be fierce, but eventually, so Marx and Engels predicted, the workers would overthrow their bourgeois masters. After this victory, the proletariat would form a dictatorship to reorganize the means of production. Then a classless society would emerge, and the state—itself an instrument of the bourgeoisie—would wither away since it no longer represented the interests of a particular class.

What had the Ottoman Empire lost?

in 1699 it had lost Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slovenia to the expanding Austrian Empire. The Russian Empire to its north also encroached on the Ottoman Empire by seizing the Crimea in 1783 and Bessarabia in 1812. A nationalist revolt had gained independence for Greece in 1830. Serbia claimed autonomy in 1827, which was recognized by the Ottoman Empire in 1830. In 1829, the Russians had obtained a protectorate over the Danubian provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia, gained control over the mouth of the Danube and eastern Black Sea coast, and secured passage of Russian ships through the Dardanelles Straights.

Exactly how did Prussia manage to create a unified German state? What implications did this have for the future of Europe?

the southern German states had agreed to enter the North German Confederation. - On January 18, 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors in Louis XIV's palace at Versailles, William I, with Bismarck standing at the foot of the throne, was proclaimed kaiser or emperor of the Second German Empire (the first was the medieval Holy Roman Empire). - The Prussian monarchy and the Prussian army had achieved German unity. In a real sense, Germany had been merged into Prussia, not Prussia into Germany. - German liberals also rejoiced. They had dreamed of unity and freedom, but the achievement of unity now seemed much more important - The Prussian leadership of German unification meant the triumph of authoritarian, militaristic values over liberal, constitutional sentiments in the development of the new German state. With its industrial resources and military might, the new state had become the strongest power on the Continent. A new European balance of power was at hand.