chapter 3 perception of the self and others

impression formation

(sometimes referred to as person perception) consists of a variety of processes that you go through in forming an impression of another person. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 69). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

script

A script is really a type of schema, but because it's a different type, it's given a different name. For example, you probably have a script for eating in a restaurant, with the actions organized into a pattern something like this: Enter, take a seat, review the menu, order from the menu, eat your food, ask for the bill, leave a tip, pay the bill, and exit the restaurant. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 66). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

self-fulfilling prophecy

A self-fulfilling prophecy (identified in statement 1 in the previous self-test) is a prediction that comes true because you act on it as if it were true. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 69). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

Pygmalion effect

A widely-known example of the self-fulfilling prophecy is the Pygmalion effect. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 70). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

Secure affirmation

An affirmation is simply a statement asserting that something is true. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 63). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

rule of similarity

Another is the rule of similarity: Things that are physically similar (they look alike) are perceived as belonging together and forming a unit. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 66). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

social comparisons

Another way you develop self-concept is by comparing yourself with others, most often with your peers. For example, after an exam, you probably want to know how you performed relative to the other students in your class. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 57). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 57). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

schemata

Another way you organize material is by creating schemata, mental templates that help you organize the millions of items of information you come into contact with every day (as well as those you already have in memory). DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 66). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

affinity-seeking strategies

As you can see from examining the list of affinity seeking strategies that follows, the use of these techniques is likely to increase your chances of being liked. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 79). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

cultural sensitivity

Cultural sensitivity—recognizing and being sensitive to cultural differences—helps increase your accuracy in perception. For example, Russian or Chinese artists such as ballet dancers often applaud their audience by clapping. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 76). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

recency effect

If what comes last (or most recently) exerts the most influence, you have a recency effect. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 71). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

impression management

Impression management (some writers use the term self-presentation or identity management) has to do with the processes you go through to communicate the image of yourself that you want others to have of you.. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 78). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

rule of proximity

In the organization of perceptions by rules, one frequently used is the rule of proximity or physical closeness: Things that are physically close to each other are perceived as a unit. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 65). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

selective perception

It's especially important to understand that at this first stage you perceive selectively; you engage in what is called selective perception. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 65). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

self-evaluations

Much in the way others form images of you based on what you do, you also react to your own behavior; you interpret and evaluate it. For example, let us say that you believe lying is wrong. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 58). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 58). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

primacy effect

Or will it be more favorable if the order is reversed? If what comes first exerts the most influence, you have a primacy effect (statement 4 in the self-test). DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 71). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

overattribution

Overattribution is the tendency to single out one or two obvious characteristics of a person and attribute everything that person does to this one or these two characteristics (statement 7 in the self-test).For example, if a person is blind or was born into great wealth, there's often a tendency to attribute everything that person does to such factors. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 74). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

perception checking

Perception checking is another way to reduce uncertainty and to make your perceptions more accurate. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 75). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

schema

Schemata, the plural of schema (though schemas is used in many texts), may thus be viewed as general ideas about people (e.g., about Pat and Chris, Japanese people, Baptists, Texans), about yourself (your qualities, abilities, liabilities), or about social roles (the characteristics of a police officer, professor, multibillionaire CEO). DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 66). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

Your four selves (Johari Window)

Self-awareness is neatly explained by the model of the four selves. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 58). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

fundamental attribution error

The fundamental attribution error occurs when you assess someone's behavior but overvalue the contribution of internal factors (for example, a person's personality) and undervalue the influence of external factors (for example, the context or situation the person is in). DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 74). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

rule of contrast

The rule of contrast is the opposite of similarity: When items (people or messages, for example) are very different from each other, you conclude that they don't belong together; they're too different from each other to be part of the same unit. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 66). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

consistency

The tendency to maintain balance among perceptions or attitudes is called consistency (statement 5 in the self-test). DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 72). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

halo effect

The widely-documented halo effect is a function of personality theory. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 71). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

reverse halo effect

There is also a reverse halo effect (or "horns" effect): If you know a person possesses several negative qualities, you're more likely to infer that the person also has other negative qualities. For example, you're more likely to perceive attractive people as more generous, sensitive, trustworthy, and interesting than those less attractive. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 71). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

cultural teachings

Through your parents, teachers, and the media, your culture instills in you a variety of beliefs, values, and attitudes—about success (how you define it and how you should achieve it); about your religion, race, or nationality; and about the ethical principles you should follow in business and in your personal life. For example, achieving what your culture defines as success contributes to a positive self-concept. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 58). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 58). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

politeness strategies

We can view politeness strategies, which are often used to make ourselves appear likeable, in terms of negative and positive types. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 80). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

Personality Theory

What makes some of these choices seem right and others wrong is your personality theory. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 70). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

self-serving bias

You exhibit the self-serving bias when you take credit for the positive and deny responsibility for the negative (statement 6 in the self-test).For example, you're more likely to attribute your positive outcomes (say, you get an A on an exam) to internal and controllable factors—to your personality, intelligence, or hard work. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 73). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

Others' Images

concept of the looking glass self, when you want to discover, say, how friendly or how assertive you are, you look at the image of yourself that others reveal to you through the way they treat you and react to you. As a child, for example, you look to your parents and then to your teachers. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 57). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

hidden self

contains all that you know of yourself that you keep secret. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 59). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

positive face

face—the desire to be viewed positively by others, to be thought of favorably, and. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 80). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

self-destructive beliefs

ideas you have about yourself that are unproductive or that make it more difficult for you to achieve your goals. for example, are some beliefs that are likely to prove self-destructive: • I should be liked by everyone. • I should be successful in everything I do. • I should always win. • I should be totally in control of my life. • I should always be productive. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 61). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

impostor phenomenon

refers to the tendency to disregard outward signs of success and to consider yourself an "impostor," a fake, a fraud, one who doesn't really deserve to be considered successful. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 62). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

behavioral self- esteem

refers to verbal and nonverbal behaviors such as your disclosures, your assertiveness, your conflict strategies, your gestures. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 61). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

affective self-esteem

refers to your feelings about yourself in light of your analysis of your strengths and weaknesses. For example, do you feel pleased with yourself? Does your analysis lead you to feel dissatisfied and perhaps depressed? DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 61). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

Cognitive self-esteem

refers to your thinking about your strengths and weaknesses, about who you are versus who you'd like to be. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 60). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

open self

represents all the information about you—behaviors, attitudes, feelings, desires, motivations, and ideas—that you and others know. Some people, for example, make you feel comfortable and supported; to them, you open yourself wide, but to others you may prefer to leave most of yourself closed. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 58). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

blind self

represents all the things about you that others know but of which you're ignorant. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 59). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

unknown self

represents truths about yourself that neither you nor others know.for example, that you become defensive when someone asks you a question or voices disagreement, or that you compliment others in the hope of being complimented back. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 59). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

negative face

the desire to be autonomous, to have the right to do as we wish. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 80). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

self-awareness

the extent to which you know yourself and the information in your open, blind, hidden, and unknown self. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 64). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

self-esteem

the extent to which you value yourself which can be increased through, for example, attacking self-destructive beliefs, being aware of the impostor phenomenon, seeking out nourishing others, working on successful projects, reminding yourself of your successes, and securing affirmation. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 64). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

self-concept

the image you have of who you are, derived from others' images of you, social comparisons, cultural teachings, and self-evaluations. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 64). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

perception

the process by which you become aware of objects, events, and especially people through your senses: sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 64). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

affinity- seeking and politeness strategies

to be liked, to be thought of highly, to be seen in the right light. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 84). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

influencing strategies

to be persuasive, to be in control, to be followed, to be the leader DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 84). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 83). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

credibility strategies

to be seen as competent, of good character, and dynamic. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 81). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

self-handicapping strategies

to excuse actual or possible future failure. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 82). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

self- monitoring strategies

to hide faults, to emphasize the positive and minimize the negative. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 83). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

self-deprecating strategies

to secure help by making yourself seem unable to do the task. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 82). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

image-confirming strategies

to seek reassurance of one's self-image; to be recognized for who you are. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 84). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

affirmation

used to refer to positive statements about yourself, statements asserting that something good or positive is true of you. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 63). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

recall

you access this information that you've stored in memory. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 68). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

primacy- recency

you are most influenced by what occurs first and by what occurs last. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 71). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

selective attention

you attend to those things that you anticipate will fulfill your needs or will prove enjoyable. For example, when daydreaming in class, you don't hear what the instructor is saying until your name is called. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 65). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

attribution of control

you evaluate what a person did on the basis of the control you perceive this person to have had on his or her behavior. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 73). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

selective exposure

you expose yourself to people or messages that confirm your existing beliefs, contribute to your objectives, or prove satisfying in some way. For example, after you buy a car, you're more apt to read and listen to advertisements for the car you just bought because these messages tell you that you made the right decision. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 65). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

stereotyping

you form an impression of someone based on a racial, religious, or other stereotype. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 78). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

interpretation-evaluation

you give these signals some kind of meaning. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 68). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

organization

you put these signals into some kind of organized pattern, by rules, schemata, or scripts DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 68). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

perceptual accentuation

you see what you want to or need to see DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 71). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

memory

you store this meaning for later retrieval. DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 68). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.

stimulation

your sense organs pick up some signal DeVito, Joseph A.. Interpersonal Communication Book, The (p. 68). Pearson Education. Kindle Edition.