Chapter 38: Agents to Control Blood Glucose Levels
The nurse is providing discharge instructions to a client who has just been diagnosed with type 1 diabetes. What instructions are most important for the client to follow related to diet? (Select all that apply.)
Avoid drinking beer, wine, or liquor. Use artificial sweeteners instead of sugar in tea and coffee. Read food labels carefully to look for hidden sources of sugar. Explanation: The client should be encouraged to follow a prescribed diet, know how many calories are allowed, and know how to do food exchanges. The client should follow an established meal schedule and avoid skipping meals. If a meal is skipped, the next insulin dose may need to be lowered, not raised. The client should be encouraged to use artificial sweeteners and to read food labels carefully. The client should avoid alcohol, dieting, and commercial weight-loss products.
What statement would be appropriately included in the teaching concerning type 2 diabetes?
"Regular exercise makes your body better able to use the insulin it produces." Explanation: People who need less than 0.5 units/kg/d may produce some endogenous insulin, or their tissues may be more responsive to insulin because of exercise and good physical conditioning. Exercise is an extremely strong hypoglycemic agent. Diabetics need to check their blood sugar level regardless of whether they are or are not prescribed insulin. The need for insulin injections is determined by the function of the pancreas and its ability to produce sufficient quantities of insulin. It is not correct to assume diet is the only factor in this process. Alcohol should be avoided, and the dosage of oral antidiabetic medication should not be altered without guidance from a health care provider.
A 42-year-old male client is prescribed glargine insulin for management of his type 2 diabetes mellitus. The nurse caring for the client develops a teaching plan regarding glargine insulin therapy. Which statement made by the client indicates that the client needs additional teaching?
"The medication will peak in 3 hours." Explanation: Insulin glargine (rDNA) is characterized by a chemical structure that regulates its release from the SC tissue into the circulation, providing a relatively constant glucose-lowering effect with no pronounced peak of action over a 24-hour period. Glargine, unlike NPH, is a clear insulin, similar to regular insulin in its appearance. Extreme caution must be used not to confuse glargine with regular insulin because serious adverse effects, including hypoglycemia, can occur. Glargine must not be diluted or mixed with any other insulin or solution because its onset of action may be delayed, and the solution will become cloudy. Insulin glargine is administered subcutaneously once daily at bedtime.
What type of insulin will most likely be administered intravenously to a client with a blood glucose level over 600 mg/dL (33.33 mmol/L)?
regular insulin Explanation: Regular insulin has rapid onset of action and can be given via IV. It is the drug of choice for acute situations, such as diabetic ketoacidosis. Isophane insulin (NPH) is used for long-term insulin therapy. Lente insulin is an intermediate-acting insulin. Ultralente insulin is a long-acting insulin.
A client receives a dose of insulin lispro at 8 AM. The nurse would be alert for signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia at which time?
Between 8:30 AM and 9:30 AM Explanation: With insulin lispro, peak effects would occur in 30 to 90 minutes or between 8:30 AM and 9:30 AM. Regular insulin peaks in 2 to 4 hours, so the nurse would be alert for signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia at this time, which would be between 10 AM and 12 noon. With insulin detemir, peak effects would occur in 6 to 8 hours, or between 2 PM and 4 PM. With NPH insulin, peak effects would occur in 4 to 12 hours, or between 12 noon and 8 PM.
The nurse is educating a client who will be adding an injection of pramlintide to his insulin regimen. What information is most important for the nurse to share with this client to ensure safe medication administration
Do not give pramlintide in the same site where insulin is administered. Explanation: Clients who take pramlintide should not be injected into the same site where insulin is administered.
When describing the effects of incretins on blood glucose control to a group of students, which would an instructor include?
Increases insulin release Explanation: Incretins increase insulin release, decrease glucagon release, slow GI emptying, and stimulate the satiety center. Growth hormone increases protein building.
A client newly diagnosed with type 1 diabetes asks the nurse why the client cannot just take a pill. The nurse would incorporate what knowledge when responding to this client?
Insulin is needed because the beta cells of the pancreas are no longer functioning. Explanation: Insulin is needed in type 1 diabetes because the beta cells of the pancreas are no longer functioning. With type 2 diabetes, insulin is produced, but perhaps not enough to maintain glucose control or the insulin receptors are not sensitive enough to insulin.
A nurse is presenting an educational event at a local senior citizens' club about diabetes. What would the nurse tell the attendees at the event about diabetes?
It is a complicated disorder that alters the metabolism of glucose. Explanation: Diabetes is a complicated disorder that alters the metabolism of glucose, fats, and proteins affecting many end organs and causing numerous clinical complications. It is part of the metabolic syndrome, a collection of conditions that predispose to cardiovascular disease.
Which would be least appropriate when administering insulin by subcutaneous injection?
Massaging the site after removing the needle Explanation: Gentle pressure should be applied to the injection after the needle is withdrawn. Massaging could contribute to erratic or unpredictable absorption.
After teaching a class about the various drugs used to control blood glucose, the instructor determines that the teaching was successful when the class identifies what as a biguanide?
Metformin Explanation: Metformin is classified as a biguanide. Miglitol is an alpha-glucosidase inhibitor. Tolbutamide is a first generation sulfonylurea. Glipizide is a second generation sulfonylurea.
A student asks the nursing instructor what insulin has the quickest therapeutic effect once administered. What would be the best response?
Regular (Humulin R) Explanation: Regular insulin has the quickest onset of 30-60 minutes. PZI and ultralente have an onset of 4-8 hours. NPH has an onset of 60-90 minutes.
A nurse is preparing an in-service presentation for a group of staff members on diabetes. Which would the nurse include as the primary delivery system for insulin?
Subcutaneous injection Explanation: Although other delivery systems are available for insulin administration such as the jet injector, insulin pen, and external pump, subcutaneous injection remains the primary delivery system.
After teaching a group of students about the various methods for the delivery of insulin, the instructor determines that the teaching was successful when the students identify which method as most commonly used for administration?
Subcutaneous injection Explanation: Subcutaneous injection currently is the most common method for administering insulin.
The client is scheduled to get a breakfast tray at 07:00. At what time should the client receive a prescribed dose of insulin lispro?
06:45 Explanation: With short-acting insulins like lispro, aspart, or glulisine, it is important to inject the medication about 15 minutes before eating.
The nurse is preparing to administer a mixture of 12 units regular insulin and 45 units NPH insulin to a client with a blood sugar of 378 mg/dL. After the nurse draws the medication into the syringe, what is the nurse's next action?
Check the dosage with another nurse. Explanation: After preparing the syringe with insulin, the nurse should then have the medication and dosage checked by a second nurse to make sure that it is correct. It is not necessary to recheck the client's blood sugar again. It is important to know when the client will be eating again; make sure that it is within the next 30 minutes. However, this is not the nurse's next step. Then the nurse will administer the insulin to the client.
Insulin binds with and activates receptors on cell membranes. Once insulin-receptor binding occurs, the membranes become highly permeable to glucose. Which action does this enable?
Entry of glucose into the cells Explanation: After insulin-receptor binding occurs, cell membranes become highly permeable to glucose and allow rapid entry of glucose into the cells.
A man is brought to the emergency department. He is nonresponsive, and his blood glucose level is 32 mg/dL. Which would the nurse expect to be ordered?
Glucagon Explanation: The client is significantly hypoglycemic and needs emergency treatment. Glucagon would be the agent of choice to raise the client's glucose level because it can be given intravenously and has an onset of approximately 1 minute. Diazoxide can be used to elevate blood glucose levels, but it must be given orally. Lispro and regular insulin would be used to treat hyperglycemia.
What is the expected action of sitagliptin on type 2 diabetes?
It slows the rate of inactivation of the incretin hormones. Explanation: Sitagliptin minimizes the rate of inactivation of the incretin hormones to increase hormone levels and prolong their activity. Sitagliptin does not block the S phase of the cell cycle. Sitagliptin is not a synthetically prepared monosodium salt nor does it inhibit hydrogen, potassium, and ATPase.
The nurse admits a client with type 2 diabetes who takes metformin (Glucophage).The nursing diagnosis given is ineffective breathing pattern. What complication of the client's current drug therapy does the nurse believe the client is experiencing?
Lactic acidosis Explanation: When taking metformin, the client is at risk for lactic acidosis, which causes hyperventilation, myalgia, malaise, GI symptoms, or unusual somnolence. Respiratory alkalosis, fluid overload, and hyperkalemia would be unlikely complications with metformin.
A nurse is caring for a patient with diabetes mellitus who is receiving an oral antidiabetic drug. Which of following ongoing assessments should the nurse perform when caring for this patient?
Observe the patient for hypoglycemic episodes. Explanation: As the ongoing assessment activity, the nurse should observe the patient for hypoglycemic episodes. Documenting family medical history and assessing the patient's skin for ulcers, cuts, and sores on the body is a pre-administration assessment activity performed by the nurse. Lipodystrophy occurs if the sites of insulin injection are not rotated.
A patient with type 1 diabetes has come to the clinic for a routine follow-up appointment. While assessing the patient's skin, the nurse observes brown spots on his lower legs. What might these spots indicate?
Widespread changes in the blood vessels Explanation: Diabetes can cause significant vascular problems. Brown spots on the lower legs of a diabetic patient are caused by small hemorrhages into the skin and may indicate widespread changes in the blood vessels.
Which factor would prohibit the administration of glipizide?
allergy to sulfonamides Explanation: Sulfonylureas are contraindicated in clients with hypersensitivity to them, with severe renal or hepatic impairment, and who are pregnant. A diagnosis of hypertension does not cause contraindication of sulfonylureas. The client should consume carbohydrates in association with the oral hypoglycemic agent. An increase in alkaline phosphatase does not result in the contraindication of glipizide.
Because of the risk for lactic acidosis, metformin is contraindicated in which client?
an 82-year-old diagnosed with type 2 diabetes Explanation: There is a black box warning against the use of metformin in persons older than 80 years. Neither recent surgery, a diagnosis of anorexia, nor the use of oral contraceptives contraindicate the use of metformin.
Which would a nurse identify as an example of a sulfonylurea?
Glyburide Explanation: Glyburide is an example of a sulfonylurea. Metformin is classified as a biguanide. Acarbose and miglitol are alpha-glucosidase inhibitors
A nurse should monitor a client taking glimepiride (Amaryl) for which of adverse effects? (Select all that apply.)
Hypoglycemia Heartburn Nausea Explanation: Adverse reactions associated with sulfonylureas, like glimepiride (Amaryl), include hypoglycemia, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, epigastric discomfort, weight gain, heartburn, and various vague neurologic symptoms, such as numbness and weakness of the extremities.
The nurse who has admited a client with diabetic ketoacidosis should look for what assessment findings that are consistent with this diagnosis? (Select all that apply.)
Ketones in the urine Flushed, dry skin Explanation: Signs/symptoms of DKA include: elevated blood glucose levels (greater than 200 mg/dL); headache; increased thirst; epigastric pain; nausea and vomiting; hot, dry, flushed skin; restlessness; and diaphoresis. The client would not experience somnolence or rectal pressure.
The nurse monitoring a client receiving insulin glulisine (Apidra) notices the client has become confused, diaphoretic, and nauseated. The nurse checks the client's blood glucose and it is 60 mg/dL (3.33 mmol/L). Which can a nurse give to treat a client with a hypoglycemic episode? (Select all that apply.)
Orange or other fruit juice Glucose tablets Hard candy
A client who began treatment for type 2 diabetes 8 months ago is now meeting with a diabetic nurse for a scheduled follow-up. How can the nurse best assess the client's glycemic control since beginning treatment?
Assess the most recent hemoglobin A1C levels. Explanation: Health care providers also look at the glycosylated hemoglobin (hemoglobin A1C) levels to assess the effectiveness of treatment. Because glucose stays attached to hemoglobin for the life of the red blood cell, which is about 120 days, the hemoglobin A1C level reflects the average blood glucose level over the past 3 months. Reviewing blood glucose readings, measuring the client's random blood glucose, and dialoguing with the client are all therapeutic strategies, but hemoglobin A1C is most accurate.
Which would be appropriate to include in teaching a client with type 2 diabetes?
It is possible with weight loss and exercise to discontinue the use of antidiabetic medication. Explanation: Exercise is perhaps the best therapy for the prevention of both type 2 diabetes and the metabolic syndrome. Exercise is an extremely strong hypoglycemic agent.
The nurse is caring for a client taking insulin. The nurse realizes the client is experiencing symptoms of hypoglycemia when the client displays:
weakness, sweating, and decreased mentation. Explanation: Symptoms of hypoglycemia include shakiness, dizziness, or light-headedness, sweating, nervousness or irritability, sudden changes in behavior or mood, weakness, pale skin, and hunger.
A nurse is providing client education to a 13-year-old girl who was just diagnosed with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Which statement by the client will alert the nurse that special instructions regarding insulin are necessary?
"I am on the middle school track team." Explanation: Because the client is on the track team, she will have increased exercise at various times that will require increased insulin and special instructions related to hypoglycemia that may come hours after she has ceased exercising. Walking two blocks every day and walking up stairs would not be considered increased physical exercise and would not be a factor. Wanting to have her mother administer the insulin is not uncommon for this age client, and the nurse would normally instruct both the mother and the daughter in the administration of the drug.
A client is admitted to the intensive care unit with diabetic ketoacidosis. The nurse knows that the client will be placed on an intravenous insulin drip. The only type of insulin that can be administered intravenously is:
Regular. Explanation: In general, regular insulin, a short-acting insulin, is used with major surgery or surgery requiring general anesthesia. IV administration of insulin is preferred because it provides more predictable absorption than subcutaneous injections. Only regular insulin is administered IV.
When administering insulin, what would be most appropriate?
Insert the needle at a 45-degree angle for injection. Explanation: The vial should be gently rotated and vigorous shaking is to be avoided to ensure uniform suspension of the insulin. Typically the area is pinched to allow access to the loose connective tissue layer. The needle is inserted at a 45-degree angle for subcutaneous administration. Gentle pressure should be applied at the injection site.
When considering the management of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), what type of insulin can be administered intravenously?
regular Explanation: Regular insulin (insulin injection) has a rapid onset of action and can be given intravenously. Therefore, it is the insulin of choice during acute situations, such as DKA, severe infection or other illness, and surgical procedures. All the other options are administered subcutaneously.
The nurse is reinforcing teaching about acarbose (Precose) to a client with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes. Which statement by the client indicates a need for further understanding?
"I must take this medication one hour before I eat." Explanation: Acarbose is given three times a day with the first bite of the meal because food increases absorption. It may cause GI effects such as abdominal discomfort, flatulence, and diarrhea. Clients should be taught to check their blood sugar frequently when first diagnosed to help determine if the medication is effective.
A client, who is 42 years old and newly diagnosed with type 2 diabetes, has attended educational sessions to provide insight into the diagnosis. Which of the client's statements should prompt the nurse to provide further teaching?
"I'm disappointed, but I take some solace in the fact that I won't ever have to have insulin injections." Explanation: Among people with type 2 diabetes, 20% to 30% require exogenous insulin at some point in their lives. Obesity is a major cause, and vigilant treatment can prevent future sequelae. The essence of type 2 diabetes is the pancreas' inability to meet insulin needs.
A female client is a newly diagnosed diabetic. She is a stay-at-home mother and responsible for meal planning and management of the home. What will the home care nurse teach this client? (Select all that apply.)
Assist the client in making menus that will meet the needs of both the client and the family. Watch the client draw up and administer her insulin. Reinforce instructions on dealing with hypoglycemia. Explanation: The home care nurse would assist the client and family to know how to plan meals that meet the needs of the client and the family. The nurse would also want to assure that the client knows how to administer insulin correctly and would need to make sure that the client understands how to deal with hypoglycemia.
A nurse is assigned to administer glargine to a patient at a health care facility. What precaution should the nurse take when administering glargine?
Avoid mixing glargine with other insulin. Explanation: When administering glargine to the patient, the nurse should avoid mixing it with other insulin or solutions. It will precipitate in the syringe when mixed. If glargine is mixed with another solution, it will lose glucose control, resulting in decreased effectiveness of the insulin. Glargine is administered via SC once daily at bedtime. The nurse should not shake the vial vigorously before withdrawing insulin. The vial should be gently rotated between the palms of the hands and tilted gently end-to-end immediately before withdrawing the insulin. The nurse administers insulin from vials at room temperature. Vials are stored in the refrigerator if it is to be stored for about three months for later use.
A nurse is caring for a 48-year-old woman who has been hospitalized after injecting the wrong type of insulin. Which sign of hypoglycemia will the nurse be careful to observe for?
Blurred vision Explanation: Blurred or double vision (diplopia), fatigue, trembling, irritability, headache, nausea, numbness, muscle weakness, hunger, tachycardia, sweating, and nervousness are signs of a hypoglycemic reaction. Fruity breath can be an indication of ketoacidosis, and flushing of the face is a sign of hyperglycemia. Dry skin is unrelated to hypoglycemia.
A nurse is caring for a patient who has developed a hypoglycemic reaction. Which intervention should the nurse perform if swallowing and gag reflexes are present in the patient?
Give oral fluids or candy. Explanation: The nurse should administer oral fluids or candy to the hypoglycemic patient with swallowing and gag reflexes. If the patient is unconscious the nurse should administer glucose or glucagon parenterally. The nurse should administer insulin through an insulin pump to special categories of diabetic patients, such as pregnant women with diabetes and renal transplantation. Oral antidiabetic drugs are administered to patients with type 2 diabetes.
Which factor would prohibit the administration of glipizide?
allergy to sulfonamides Explanation: Sulfonylureas are contraindicated in clients with hypersensitivity to them, with severe renal or hepatic impairment, and who are pregnant. A diagnosis of hypertension does not cause contraindication of sulfonylureas. The client should consume carbohydrates in association with the oral hypoglycemic agent. An increase in alkaline phosphatase does not result in the contraindication of glipizide.
Heavy intake of which herb should be avoided by a client who is prescribed an antidiabetic medication?
garlic Explanation: Garlic has been known to cause hypoglycemia when taken with antidiabetic medications. Anise, basil, and oregano are not noted to carry this risk
Heavy intake of which herb should be avoided by a client who is prescribed an antidiabetic medication?
garlic Explanation: Garlic has been known to cause hypoglycemia when taken with antidiabetic medications. Anise, basil, and oregano are not noted to carry this risk.
A nurse is preparing to administer a rapid-acting insulin. Which medication would the nurse most likely administer
insulin lispro Explanation: Insulin lispro is an example of a rapid-acting insulin. Insulin glargine and insulin detemir are long-acting insulin. Isophane insulin suspension is an intermediate-acting insulin.
A client's current condition requires rapid reduction of blood sugar levels. Which type of insulin will have the most rapid onset of action?
insulin. lisproInsulin lispro has a 15-minute onset of action. NPH, 70/30, and regular insulin have longer onsets of action, a later peak, and a longer duration of action.
Rosiglitazone is being considered for the treatment of diabetes in an adult male client. Before the initiation of rosiglitazone therapy, the nurse should review what laboratory work recently drawn?
liver enzymes Explanation: Rosiglitazone has been associated with hepatotoxicity and requires monitoring of liver enzymes. Liver function tests (e.g., serum aminotransferase enzymes) should be checked before starting therapy and every 2 months for 1 year, then periodically. Platelets, D-dimer, and tests of renal function are less significant to the safety and efficacy of treatment.
When considering the management of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), what type of insulin can be administered intravenously?
regular Explanation: Regular insulin (insulin injection) has a rapid onset of action and can be given intravenously. Therefore, it is the insulin of choice during acute situations, such as DKA, severe infection or other illness, and surgical procedures. All the other options are administered subcutaneously.
A client with diabetes is undergoing testing for glycosylated hemoglobin. The nurse instructs the client that this test measures average blood glucose over what time period?
the past 3 or 4 months Explanation: Glycosylated hemoglobin measures glucose control over the past 3 to 4 months. When blood glucose levels are high, glucose molecules attach to hemoglobin in the red blood cell. The longer the hyperglycemia lasts, the more glucose binds to the red blood cell and the higher the glycosylated hemoglobin. This binding lasts for the life of the red blood cell (about 4 months) so the other time frames would not be accurate.
The demonstration of what symptom would suggest that an insulin-dependent client is experiencing a hypoglycemic reaction? Select all that apply.
weakness diaphoresis mental confusion increased pulse rate Explanation: Hypoglycemia, also called low blood glucose or low blood sugar, occurs when the level of glucose in blood drops below normal. Symptoms of hypoglycemia include tachycardia, palpitations, nervousness, weakness, confusion, hunger, and sweating. A decrease in blood glucose activates the sympathetic nervous system to produce a stress response. The nurse also assesses for such central nervous system effects as mental confusion, incoherent speech, visual changes, convulsions, and coma.
