Chapter 4: Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life
Steroids
A type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four rings with various functional groups attached.
Use the figures to answer the question. Which molecule shown above can contribute negative charge when positioned in a chain? A) A B) B C) C D) D
D) D
X-ray Crystallography
a technique used to study the three-dimensional structure of molecules. It depends on the diffraction of an X-ray beam by the individual atoms of a crystallized molecule
macromolecules
carbohydrates proteins and nucleic acid that are huge
alpha carbon
carbon atom at the center of an amino acid, partnered with the amine group, R side chain, carboxyl group, and a hydrogen
structural isomer
have the same atoms but in different covalent bonding relationships
dehydration reaction and hydrolysis show what?
how the 3 macromolecule groups re broken down or built
sickle-cell disease
human blood disorder where valine is substituted for glutamic acid at a particular position in the primary structure of hemoglobin, red-blood cells are therefore sickle shaped, can cause complications
secondary structure of protein
protein structure is formed by folding and twisting of amino acid chain
Monomer
repeating units that serve as the building blocks of a polymer
Valence
the number of covalent bonds an atom can form. The number of electrons required to complete the valence shell.
valence
the number of covalent bonds that an atom can form based on its valence electrons
N-terminus
the only amino group end in a polypeptide chain
quaternary structure
the overall protein structure that results from the aggregation of these polypeptide subunits
What were the results of Miller's experiment?
variety of organic compounds synthesized found in living cells
(Nucleic Acids) RNA:
- Typically single stranded - A copy of a section of DNA - contains the code for a protein - Sugar is Ribose -Nitrogenous bases = Adenine, Uracil, Guanine, Cytosine
Lipids
- mix poorly with water. - have some polar bonds associated with oxygen, consist mostly of hydrocarbon regions - ex. fats, phosphlipids, and steriods.
What is the charge of phosphate group when at end?
-2
(Carbohydrates) General Characteristics
-Polymers of simple sugars -Classified according to the number of simple sugars - 3 to 7 carbons -OH attached to all carbons except one -Aldehydes or ketones
Sulfhydryl
-SH
What is a sulfhydryl group?
-SH
What are the 8 essential amino acids?
1. Isoleucine 2. Leucine 3. Lysine 4. Methionine 5. Phenylalanine 6. Threonine 7. Tryptophan 8. Valine
What is the primary level structure of a protein?
1. Linear chain of amino acids 2. The base- the bottom level 3. What amino acids are there and in what order are they in there' (Everything else depends on the primary structure)
If a DNA double helix is 100 nucleotide pairs long and contains 25
100 nucleotide pairs are a total of 200 nucleotides. Because of base pairing, if there are 25 adenine there must also be 25 thymine. This leaves 200-50 = 150 nucleotides to be divided evenly between guanine and cytosine.
Flowering plants start to grow
146 mya
How long have there been land plants on Earth?
490 million years
pentose
5 carbon sugar like ribose and deoxyribose
What is an example of a methyl group?
5-Methylcytosine
Cambrian Explosion
540 mya
hexose
6 carbon sugar
hexose
6 carbon sugar like glucose and fructose
glucose
6 carbon sugar, C6H12O6, form a stable ring
Carbon
6 electrons, with 2 in the first electron shell and 4 in the second. Therefore, it has 4 valence electrons. Because of this carbon completes its valence shell by sharing its 4 electrons with other atoms so that 8 electrons are present.
Grand Canyon Forms
6 mya-5 mya
How long was the Age of Amphibians?
60 million years
What does a phosphodiester linkage create?
A backbone of sugar-phosphate units with nitrogenous bases as appendages
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
A double-stranded, helical nucleic acid molecule capable of replicating and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins.
Saturated Fatty Acid
A fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds, thus maximizing the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton.
sulfhydryl group
A functional group consisting of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom (—SH).
macromolecules
A giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules, usually by a dehydration reaction, polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids are macromolecules
polymer
A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together
Monomer
A simple compound whose molecules can join together to form polymers
Starch
A storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose.
Which of the following functional groups increases the solubility of organic compounds in water? a. —NH2 b. —OH c. —COOH d. —COH e. All of the listed responses are correct.
All of the listed responses are correct. All of the listed functional groups are hydrophilic and thus increase the solubility of organic molecules in water.
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
An adenine-containing nucleoside triphosphate that releases free energy when its phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed. This energy is used to drive endergonic reactions in the cell.
Glycogen
An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.
The Human Genome Project
An international collaborative effort to map and sequence the DNA of the entire human genome. Helped with the development of faster, less expensive sequencing methods
Trans fats
An unsaturated fat, formed artificially during hydrogenation of oils, containing one or more trans double bonds.
storage polysaccharides in animals
Animals store glycogen, a polymer of glucose that is extensively branches. Humans and other vertebrates store glycogen mainly in liver and muscle cells. Breakdown of glycogen in these cells releases glucose when the demand for energy increases (extensive branching = more free ends to break down). However, this stored fuel doesn't last for very long.
Lipid
Any of a group of large biological molecules, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids, that mix poorly, if at all, with water.
nitrogen make up
Bonds 3 times (visible once molecules are built)
peptide bonds
Bonds between amino acids, covalent, use dehydration synthesis
How are gasoline and fat chemically similar?
Both consist largely of hydrocarbon chains.
Methane
CH₄
What is the chemical formula for urea?
CO(NH₂)₂
carbon dioxide
CO2, single carbon joined to two atoms of oxygen with double covalent bonds, often considered inorganic because it lacks hydrogen
What type of fatty acid can be found in animals?
Can find oils in animals in order to avoid water loss (oil on the skin in order to keep water inside which encourages hydration)
Disulfide bridges
Can form between sulfurs of two cysteines
3.3
Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material
Polysaccharides
Carbohydrates that are made up of more than two monosaccharides
Cis-trans isomers
Cis-trans isomers - carbons have covalent bonds to the same atoms, but these atoms differ in their spatial arrangement due to the inflexibilty of double bonds
What type of bonds does it form with other elements?
Covalent bonds
Ethene (ethylene)
C₂H₄
What is the name of the functional group shown in Figure 3.2? A) carbonyl B) ketone C) aldehyde D) carboxyl E) hydroxyl
D
wht are the enantiomers of glucose?
D and L glucose
Thymine is only found in
DNA
DNA vs RNA
DNA Has T Sugar: Deoxyribose (lacks an oxygen on the 2nd carbon ring) RNA Has U Sugar: ribose Both have A, G, and C
Nucleic Acids
DNA and RNA
yes
Do the checked molecules show an appropriate number of bonds around each carbon atom?
Purines
Double ringed Adenine and guanine Biological names for the bases
If cells are grown in a medium containing radioactive 15N, which of these molecules will be labeled? A) fatty acids only B) nucleic acids only C) proteins only D) both fatty acids and proteins E) both proteins and nucleic acids
E
Normal hemoglobin is a tetramer, consisting of two molecules of β-globin and two molecules of α- globin. In sickle-cell disease, as a result of a single amino acid change, the mutant hemoglobin tetramers associate with each other and assemble into large fibers. Based on this information alone, we can conclude that sickle-cell hemoglobin exhibits A) altered primary structure. B) altered secondary structure. C) altered tertiary structure. D) altered quaternary structure. E) altered primary structure and altered quaternary structure; the secondary and tertiary structures may or may not be altered.
E
When two carbon atoms are joined by a double bond, the atoms joined to the carbons form a A) sphere. B) cube. C) tetrahedron. D) line. E) plane.
E
Which molecule shown in Figure 3.5 would have a positive charge in a cell? A) A B) B C) C D) D E) E
E
Valence
Electrons on the outermost energy level of an atom
The dominant forms of life are Angiosperms and mammals.
Eocene
Hydrogen rich and reducing
First atmosphere
The decomposed remains of organisms living millions of years ago, such as petroleum, gasoline, coal, and natural gas.
Fossil fuels
In 1828, _________________ produced the first organic compound _______________.
Friedrich Wöhler, urea
sickle cell disease
Genetic disorder in which red blood cells have abnormal hemoglobin molecules and take on an abnormal shape, the substitution of one amino acid for another in the protein that damages it
sickle cell disease
Genetic disorder in which red blood cells have abnormal hemoglobin molecules and take on an abnormal shape.
hydroxyl group (-OH)
Give an alcohol character Ie: ethanol
What is the most common monosaccharide?
Glucose (C6H12O6)
What is a common example of a carbohydrate?
Glucose - (C6H12O6) common carb (You have as many carbons as oxygens and twice as many hydrogens)
Can acetic acid, glycine, and glycerol phosphate exist as forms that are enantiomers?
Glycerol phosphate can exist as forms that are enantiomers, but acetic acid and glycine cannot.
true or false: Humans can digest cellulose
Humans can not digest cellulose - we don't have the enzymes(Veggies - very low in calories bc they don't have energy that we can use)
Which functional group is this? (Compound name: Alcohol)
Hydroxyl group
Denaturation
In proteins, a process in which a protein loses its native shape due to the disruption of weak chemical bonds and interactions, thereby becoming biologically inactive; in DNA, the separation of the two strands of the double helix.
Denaturation
In proteins, a process in which a protein loses its native shape due to the disruption of weak chemical bonds and interactions, thereby becoming biologically inactive; in DNA, the separation of the two strands of the double helix. Denaturation occurs under extreme (noncellular) conditions of pH, salt concentration, or temperature.
Denaturation
In proteins, a process in which a protein unravels and loses its native conformation, thereby becoming biologically inactive. In DNA, the separation of the two strands of the double helix.
Sickle-cell Disease
Individuals who are homozygous for the gene controlling hemoglobin S. The disease is characterized by the destruction of red blood cells and by episodic blocking of blood vessels by the adherence of sickle cells to the vascular endothelium.
(Nucleic Acids) Purpose
Information carrying molecules of the cell
alcohol
Is highly polar and may act as a weak acid
A compound with the same number of atoms of each type of element, but a different arrangement and different properties.
Isomer
How do isomers differ from one another? a. Isomers differ in molecular formulas b. Isomers differ in the arrangement or bonding of atoms c. Isomers differ in charge
Isomers differ in the arrangement or bonding of atoms Isomers may differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms or the position of double bonds within the molecule and thus have different chemical properties.
What kind of effect does R-dopa have on Parkinson's disease?
It alleviates the symptoms.
What does the term amino acid signify about the structure of such a molecule?
It has an amino group making it an amine. But it also has a carboxyl group which makes it a carboxylic acid
What does the term amino acid signify about the structure of such a molecule?
It has both an amino group (-NH2), which makes it an amine, and a carboxyl group (-COOH), which makes it a carboxylic acid.
Is CO2 an organic compound? Why or why not?
It isn't bc it is a simple molecule and lacks hydrogen.
amino group
NH2
amino group elements? Compound name?
NH2 amine
(Functional Groups) Sulfhydryl Group
Nonpolar - Forms disulfide bridges - stabilizes protein shape
(Functional Groups) Methyl Group
Nonpolar - affects the expression of genes- affects shape and function of m/f sex hormones
Sugar, nitrogenous base, phosphate group
Nucleic acids
Why do plants use starches instead of fats to store energy?
Plants don't move, animals need to move to get food and survive - Need energy storage that is less weight - fats - Not only do animals need to be more efficient in moving because they burn more energy from mobility, they need less weight to move faster
What are the roles of proteins/enzymes?
Play a role in defense, storage, transport, cellular communication, movement or structural support (look at examples on figure 3.17 in text)
A slight change in _______________ structure can affect a protein's structure and ability to function
Primary
Proteomics
Protein analysis
Parts of Nitrogenous Base
Pyrimidines and purines
dissociation of proteins
Quaternary proteins only, once function of protein is done the four groups of proteins move away from each other
what is represented by R?
R may be a hydrogen atom or a carbon skeleton. shows chain continues and differentiates amino acids
What determines the behavior of an amino acid?
R-group
Uracil is only found in
RNA
Nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and inert gases released by volcanoes, reducing
Second atmosphere
Double helix
Shape of DNA, two polynucleotides spiraling around an imaginary axis
functions of carbs
Short term energy, structure
Monosaccharides
Single sugar molecules
Is there a Difference in DNA and RNA?
Slight differences in cells, sugars, and nitrogenous bases
What does cholesterol do to membranes? How can it be harmful?
Stabilizes cell membranes (sensitive to heat which can melt cell membranes but cholesterol prevents it) Excess cholesterol can accumulate in arteries and cause high blood pressure - it is necessary but not excessively
In 1953, ____________________ and __________________ demonstrated that organic compounds such as amino acids could form spontaneously in the right environment.
Stanley Miller, Harold Urey
Catalyst
Substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction
_____ is formed when a Hydroxyl Group and a Carbonyl Group are added
Sugar
Why is cholesterol important to the human body?
The body uses it to: build the structure of cell membranes, make hormones like estrogen, testosterone and adrenal hormones, and help your metabolism work efficiently
Ester bond
The bond formed when fatty acid molecules are joined to glycerol molecules in dehydration reactions.
Valence
The bonding capacity of a given atom
What is a prime (') used to identify?
The carbon atoms in the ribose, such as 3' carbon or 5' carbon
Primary Structure
The first level of protein structure; the specific sequence of amino acids making up a polypeptide chain.
Double Helix
The form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent antiparallel polynucleotide strands wound around an imaginary axis into a spiral shape.
Double Helix
The form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent polynucleotide strands wound into a spiral shape.
Quaternary Structure
The fourth level of protein structure; the shape resulting from the association of two or more polypeptide subunits.
A pharmaceutical company was forced to recall a pain reliever medication that had been linked to the fatalities of several hundred people. Analysis of the recalled drug revealed the presence of two isomers due to an asymmetrical carbon atom in the drug molecule. What can be hypothesized from this observation? a. The two isomers of the drug contain different functional groups and the isomer with the aberrant functional group is connected to the fatalities. b. The double bond involving the asymmetrical carbon can generate cis-trans isomers that typically have different chemical properties, thus accounting for the drug's toxic properties. c. Isomers involving an asymmetrical carbon are distinguished by the tendency for functional groups to form ionic bonds with the carbon that readily break in solution. The toxic effect of the drug is due to the highly reactive nature of the dissolved functional groups. d. The isomers are enantiomers, with one having toxic effects on humans. e. The asymmetrical carbon causes the solubility of the two drug isomers to vary significantly, thus having different chemical properties and effects on people who take them.
The isomers are enantiomers, with one having toxic effects on humans. Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other and that differ in shape due to the presence of an asymmetric carbon. The remarkable sensitivity of organisms means that subtle differences in molecular structure can translate to different and unintended effects on organism function.
In what ways does the methyl group differ chemically from the other six important chemical groups?
The methyl group is nonpolar and not reactive. The other six groups are called functional groups. They are each hydrophilic, increasing the solubility of organic compounds in water, and can participate in chemical reactions.
Why can cows and termites digest cellulose?
The microbes/bacteria in their stomach allows them
The more related the species...?
The more similar the DNA
Antiparallel
The opposite arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix.
Gene Expression
The process by which information encoded in DNA directs the synthesis of proteins or, in some cases, RNAs that are not translated into proteins and instead function as RNAs.
Secondary Structure
The second level of protein structure; the regular local patterns of coils or folds of a polypeptide chain.
Evolutionary Lineage
The sequence of ancestral organisms leading to a particular taxon; represented by a branch (line) in a phylogenetic tree.
Monosaccharides
The simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides. Also known as simple sugars, the molecular formulas of are generally some multiple of CH2O.
structural isomers
The two molecules differ in the covalent bond relationships among their atoms.
enantiomers
These molecules are _____.
Methyl Group (-CH3)
Very common Methylated Compounds Ie: 5-Methylcytosine - component of DNA that has been modified by addition of a methyl group Especially important in G nome in genetics in control of access in the DNA If you attach a methyl group to a DNA it can hide it from enzymes Carbon bonded to 3 hydrogen
glucose and fructose
What is sucrose made of?
Methane
When a carbon atom has four single bonds to other atoms, the molecule is tetrahedral.
Ethene (ethylene)
When two carbon atoms are joined by a double bond, all atoms attached to those carbons are in the same plane, and the molecule is flat.
dehydration synthesis/reaction
When two monomers bond together through the loss of a water molecule
Phosphate groups
Which functional group is a component of ATP.
F
Which of functional groups listed below behaves as an acid?
A
Which of the functional groups behaves as a base?
C
Which of these functional groups is characteristic of a ketone?
A
Which one of these is an amino group?
Is one monomer of a carbohydrate (ex. glucose) still a carbohydrate?
Yes
Cysteine
a sulfur-containing amino acid
Methyl Group
affects the expression of genes when on DNA or on proteins bound to DNA; affects the shape and function of male and female sex hormones
ATP
aka adenosine triphosphate, a complex and organic nucleic acid consisting of the nitrogenous base adenine, a sugar called ribose, and three phosphate groups that serves as a main energy source for cells due to its ability to react with water and become adenosine DIphosphate
cis-trans isomer
aka geometric isomer, different spatial arrangements because double bonds can't move, cis where the group is on the same side every time, trans where the group is on opposite sides every time
nucleotide
aka nucleoside monophosphate, monomers that make up each polynucleotide or nucleic acid, includes a nitrogenous base, 5 carbon sugar, and 1-3 phosphate groups
triacylglycerol
aka triglyceride, fat made from glycerol and three fatty acids
-NH2
amino
Glycine
an amino acid
nucleosides
base + sugar
Determines the two groups of sugars
carbonyl
Cellulsoe
major component of tough walls that enclose plant cells - polymer of glucose - Enzymes that digest starch by hydrolyzing its a linkage are unable to hydrolyze the b linkages of cellulose because of the distinctly different shapes of these two molecules .
phospholipids importance for cells
major components of cell membranes
glucose + glucose —> _____ by _____.
maltose + water ... dehydration synthesis
polysacharides
many monosaccharides linked together via dehydration synthesis
Functions of Unsaturated Fats
molecules cannot pack, liquid at room temperature, and mostly plant oils
Alcohols
organic compounds containing hydroxyl groups
Thiols
organic compounds containing sulfhydryl groups
Amines
organic compounds with one or more amino groups
Isomers
organic compounds with the same molecular formula but different structure and therefore different properties
amino acid
organic molecule possessing both a carboxyl group and and an amino group, monomers of polypeptides, 20 amino acids, the R side chain is what differs in each amino acid (some R chains are hydrophobic some are hydrophillic)
amino acid
organic molecule with both an amino group and a carboxyl group
bond of proteins
peptide bond
How do deoxyribose and ribose differ?
ribose has an oxygen that deoxyribose is missing
cis
same side
Why is the tail of a phospholipid hydrophobic?
tails= fats
What specifically do dehydration reactions do to molecules?
takes out a water molecule, then sticking the two together;Very handy around inside the cell because the waste product is water (good because it's useful, not poisonous--> safe reaction)
Glycerol Phosphate
takes part in many important chemical reactions in cells
examples of denaturation
temperature change, pH change, salt concentration
What shape forms when every grouping of carbon bonded to 4 other atoms?
tetrahedral shape
hydrophilic
the phosphate group and its attachments form a a ____ head that has an affinity for water
Monosaccharides vs. Disaccharide
- Monomers that make up sugars (carbohydrate version) *Mono = one, saccr = sugar* - two monosaccharides attached by a dehydration synthesis
(Lipids) Saturated
- No double bonds between carbons straighter chains - Usually solid at room temperature - Straight chains allow for tight packing - Most animal fats Ex. Lard Butter
(Lipids) General Characteristics
- Not soluble in water(hydrophobic) - Most hydrocarbon chains - Fats steroids phospholipids and waxes - Used for energy storage and cell membranes - Not polymer but large molecules
(Carbohydrates) Starch vs Cellulose - Starch
- Polymer of alpha glucose - Branched - Animals are able to digest Ex. Potato, Bread, Rice, Pasta
(Proteins) General Characteristics and Importances
- Polymers of amino acids(polypeptides) - Each has a unique 3-D shape -Vary in sequence of amino acids - Major component of cell parts - Provide support - Storage of amino acids - Receptor proteins; contractile proteins; antibodies; enzymes
A change in DNA that creates valine instead of glutamic acid (hydrophilic to hydrophobic) will do what?
Mess up the folding/protein structure and the cells can't flow easily through the arteries
Which functional group is this? (Compound name: Methylated compound)
Methyl Group
Enzyme
A macromolecule serving as a catalyst, a chemical agent that increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.
Enzyme
A macromolecule serving as a catalyst, a chemical agent that increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction. Most enzymes are proteins.
Antiparallel
Referring to the arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix (they run in opposite 5' S 3' directions).
Secondary Structure
Regions of repetitive coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone of a protein due to hydrogen bonding between constituents of the backbone (not the side chains).
tertiary structure
Results from interactions between side chains.
sickle-cell disease
Results in red blood cells that aren't cushy and soft, makes blood cells firm and sharp that can get caught between capillaries and kill kids(Arises with a substitution of a single amino acid at the secondary structure stage)
In aqueous solutions, glucose molecules form _______, the most stable form of these sugars under physiological conditions.
Rings (this is why it is not completely accurate to draw glucose with a linear carbon skeleton)
Which of the following molecules is a weak acid? a. R—COOH b. R—NH2 c. R—OH d. R—SH e. None of the listed responses is correct.
R—COOH The carboxyl group (—COOH) of R—COOH can donate a proton (H+).
Antiparallel
The opposite arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix
antiparallel
The opposite arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix. 5'--> 3'
Which molecule shown in Figure 3.6 contains a functional group that cells use to transfer energy between organic molecules? A) A B) B C) C D) D E) E
D
Glucose, fructose, and other sugars that have six carbons are called...
Hexoses *(note that most names for sugars end in -ose)
The dominant form of life is humans (historical time).
Holocene
The hydrocarbon on the right has a double bond.
How do these hydrocarbons differ?
The hydrocarbon on the right has a ring structure.
How do these hydrocarbons differ?
The hydrocarbon on the right is branched.
How do these hydrocarbons differ?
they differ in length
How do these hydrocarbons differ?
What is a common monosaccharide?
I.e. glucose (very small molecule compared to long carbohydrates)
What is an example of starch storage?
Ie: potato plant makes a potato to store energy for later
Why is carbon dioxide important to the living world?
It is the source of carbon for almost all living organisms via photosynthesis.
What are the two reasons carbon dioxide is not considered organic?
It lacks hydrogen and is a simple molecule
The structure and function of a polysaccharide are determined by what?
Its sugar monomers and the positions of its glycosidic linkages
Carbonyl group
Ketone if the carbonyl group is within a carbon skeleton Aldehyde if the carbonyl group is at the end of a carbon skeleton.
What enantiomer can help to treat Parkinson's disease?
L-Dopa
Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release what amount of energy? (ex. gasoline, grease fire, etc.)
Large amounts
Carbon chains can vary in?
Length, branching, double bond position, and the presence of rings
Which type of molecule includes an example with a long-chain carbon backbone? What is the dominant element attached to this backbone?
Lipid Hydrogen
Which type of organic molecule are hydrocarbons associated with in cells? a. Carbohydrates (sugars) b. Lipids (fats) c. Proteins (amino acids) d. Nucleic acids (DNA)
Lipids (fats)
3.4
Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules
3.2
Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers
Ordovician-Silurian (440 mya), Devonian (365 mya), Permian-Triassic (250 mya), Triassic-Jurassic (210 mya), Cretaceous (65 mya)
Major Extinctions
What is the structure that a phospholipid makes up?
Make up all the membranes of a cell (i.e. make up the membranes of the organism inside the cell, etc.
_________________ says that phenomenon are a system of causally interacting parts and processes that produce one or more effects. Examples include natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow.
Mechanism
Age of the Dinosaurs
Mesozoic Era
Tertiary structure
The overall shape of a polypeptide, is determined by interactions among various side chains (R groups) (Can function as a protein at this stage)
Polymer
a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds and attached to each other(Made up of repeated monomer units)
polymer
a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical covalently-bonded building blocks called monomers
Polymer
a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together by covalent bonds
Polymer
a long molecule of many similar or identical building blocks(monomers) linked by covalent bonds
saturated fatty acid
a long-chain hydrocarbon with single covalent bonds in the carbon chain; the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton is maximized
Enzyme
a macromolecule serving as a catalyst, a chemical agent that increases the rate of reaction without being consumed by the reaction. most enzymes are proteins.
Ethane
a molecule may have more than one tetrahedral group of single-bonded atoms
organic molecule
a molecule with carbon bonded to hydrogen
pyrimidine
a nitrogenous base that has a single-ring structure; one of the two general categories of nitrogenous bases found in DNA and RNA; thymine, cytosine, or uracil
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
a nucleic acid made up of nucleotides; provides directions for its own replication
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
a nucleic acid molecule, usually a double-stranded helix, in which each polynucleotide strand consists of nucleotide monomers with a deoxyribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T); capable of being replicated and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins
RNA (ribonucleic acid)
a nucleic acid that translates the code stored in DNA, which makes possible the synthesis of proteins
Nucleic Acid
a polymer (polynucleotide) consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a blueprint for proteins and, through the actions of proteins, for all cellular activities. The two types are DNA and RNA
Polynucleotide
a polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers in a chain; nucleotides can be those of DNA or RNA
glycogen
a polymer of glucose (similar to the alpha configuration, looks like a cis isomer) that acts as a storage and energy granule in animal cells, is very branched
starch
a polymer of glucose in the alpha configuration that acts as a storage and energy granule in plant cells, can be branched or unbranched depending on the complexity, cis isomer
cellulose
a polymer of glucose in the beta configuration that acts as a structure molecule in plant cell walls, is never branched, trans isomer, cannot be digested by humans
Starch
a polymer of glucose monomers (Plants store starch as granules within cells Starch is the primary way that plants store their energy
starch
a polymer of glucose monomers, as granules within cells
glycogen
a polymer of glucose that is like amylopectin but more extensively branched
Polypeptide
a polymer of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds
Polysaccharide
a polymer of many monosaccharides, formed by dehydration reactions
polysaccharides
a polymer of many monosaccharides, formed by dehydration reactions, few hundred/thousand monosaccharides, common examples are glycogen and cellulose
peptoglycagen
a polymer only found in bacteria, has modified monosacharide
Glycogen
a polysaccharide found in animals
cellulose
a polysaccharide that is a major component of the tough walls that enclose plant cells
chitin
a polysaccharide, carbohydrate used by arthropods to build their exoskeletons
denaturation of proteins
a process in which a protein loses its native shape due to the disruption of weak chemical bonds and interactions, thereby becoming biologically inactive
hydrolysis
a process that is essentially the revers of the dehyration reaction and means water breakage
Hydrolysis
a process that is essentially the reverse of dehydration reaction; the bond between the monomers is broken by the addition of a water molecule, with a hydrogen from water attachments to one monomer and the hydroxyl group attaching to the other
Hydrophobic interaction
amino acids with hydrophobic (nonpolar) side chains usually end up in clusters at the core of the protein
How was the synthesis of organic carbon found?
ammonium and cyanate -> urea (urine), not organic salt
Hydroxide group
an OH single bonded; helps dissolve organic compounds
Glyceral
an alchol, each of its three carbons bears a hydroxyl group.
Propanal
an aldehyde
Glycogen
an extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch
Cholesterol
an important steroid, is a component in animal cell membranes
sickle cell disease
an inherited blood disorder is caused by the substitution of one amino acid for the normal one at a particular position in the primary structure of hemoglobin the protein that carries oxygen in red blood cells
Sickle-cell disease
an inherited blood disorder, results from a single amino acid substitution in the protein hemoglobin
hydrocarbons
an organic molecule consisting of only carbon and hydrogen, atoms of hydrogen are attached to the carbon skeleton wherever electrons are available for covalent bonding, can undergo reactions that release a lot of energy
Hydrocarbon
an organic molecule consisting only of carbon and hydrogen
Hydrocarbons
an organic molecule made up of only carbon and hydrogen atoms
Amino Acid
an organic molecule possessing both a carboxyl and an amino group. Amino acids serve as the monomers of polypeptides
Aldehyde
an organic molecule with a carbonyl group at the end (terminal) of the carbon skeleton
amino acid
an organic molecule with both an amino group and a carboxyl group
Trans Fat
an unsaturated fat, formed artificially during hydrogenation of oils, containing one or more trans double bonds
genomics
analysis of large sets of genes, or comparisons of whole genomes of species, can be used to see the unity and diversity of individuals in a species or species in evolution
proteomics
analysis of large sets of proteins, including their sequences, can be used to see the unity and diversity of individuals in a species or species in evolution
glycogen
animal storage polysacharide
example of defensive proteins
antibodies inactivate and help destroy viruses and bacteria
Enantiomers are molecules that _____. a. contain a carboxyl group b. are mirror images c. are isomers that differ in the covalent partnerships between their atoms d. contain an -OH group e. differ in the arrangement of their molecules about a double bond
are mirror images
acidic R groups
are negatively charged
What are cis-trans isomers?
carbon has covalent bonds to same atoms but atoms differ in spatial arrangement due to inflexibility of double bonds
ketone
carbon skeleton molecule with a carbonyl group located inside the chain
aldehyde
carbon skeleton molecule with a carbonyl group located on the end of the chain
Hydrocarbons are molecules with only ______________ and _______________, and are major components of petroleum.
carbon, hydrogen
What are the six most important chemical elements of life? a. carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphate, sulfur b. carbon, nitrogen, calcium, zinc, iron, hydrogen c. carbon, nitrogen, calcium, oxygen, phosphate, iron d. carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, calcium, phosphate, hydrogen e. carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, hydrogen, iron, magnesium
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphate, sulfur All of these elements are capable of forming strong covalent bonds, important in building large, complex molecules.
What is a carboxyl group called in cells in an ionic form?
carboxylate group
fatty acid
carboxylic acid with a long carbon chain, vary in length and number/location of double bonds, 3 fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule form a fat molecule (triglyceride/triacylglycerol)
What is the compound name of a carboxyl group?
carboxylic acid, organic acid
disacharides? how are they bonded and broken apart?
carbs composed of two monosacharides joined by dehydration or condensation reaction, broken apart by hydrolysis, bonded via glycosidic linkage, must be broken down into monosacharides before energy can be used
unsaturated carbon
carbons double bonded making room for less hydrogens, liquid form at room temp, have kinks that make them more tightly packed
cis-trans isomers
carbons have covalent bonds to the same atoms but these atoms differ in their spatial arrangements due to the inflexibility of double bonds
-COOH
carboxyl
RNA
decodes DNA and takes those codes to make protiens
helix
delicate coil held by hydrogen bonds forming in every 4th amino acid
The two types of nucleic acids are
deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid
Denaturization
destruction of the normal shape of the protein, no longer matches shape of the substrate; caused by changes in pH and high temperature
What is a structural isomer?
differ in covalent arrangements of atoms
Structural isomers
differ in covalent arrangements of their atoms (Same number of carbons and hydrogens but arranged differently so different properties)
macromolecules
four critically important large molecules for life, includes carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids
Frutose
fruit sugar
A protein's structure determines its?
function
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
function in the cell is so important, ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of 3 phosphate groups
The behavior of the molecule is determined by the ______________ they have
functional group
carbonyl group
functional group in either an aldehyde or ketone, depending on where it is located in a carbon skeleton
amino group
functional group of amines, present in all amino acids
phosphate group
functional group of organic phosphates
sulfhydryl group
functional group of thiols, an alcohol but the S replaces the O
carboxyl group
functional group that combines hydroxyl and carbonyl groups, either carboxylate ion or organic acid
Enanitomers
isomers that are mirror images of each other and that differ in shape because of the presence of (asymmetric carbon- one that is attached to 4 different atoms or groups of atoms)
Hydronium ion
hydrogen ion combines with a water molecule to form a hydronium ion, H3O(+) Gaining a hydrogen ion
how are peptide bonds broken?
hydrolosis
what type of reaction converts polymers into monomers
hydrolysis (breaks covalent bond)
glycogen
hydrolysis of _____ in these cells releases glucose when the demand for sugar increases but does not last very long
how do you break monomers
hydrolysis; occurs when water is added to split a large molecule
When the R group is polar is it hydrophobic or hydrophilic?
hydrophilic
polar side chains & charged side chains
hydrophilic
Polar means?
hydrophilic (asymmetrical)
Phospholipids heads and tails? What does that lead it structure to be?
hydrophilic head hydrophobic tails bc of their structure they can organize into double layered structures called bilayers which shield the hydrophobic parts from water
nonpolar side chains
hydrophobic
Non-polar means?
hydrophobic (R groups fairly symmetrical)
hydrocarbon tail
hydrophobic and are excluded from water
what are the types of interactions that R groups can have in tertiary structures?
hydrophobic interaction or disulfide bridges
Which of the following are properties of hydrocarbons? a. hydrophilic, good source of stored energy, consisting primarily of carbon and hydrogen b. hydrophobic, containing numerous amine groups, polar c. hydrophobic, polar, charged d. hydrophilic, containing numerous carboxyl groups, nonpolar e. hydrophobic, nonpolar, good source of stored energy
hydrophobic, nonpolar, good source of stored energy Because they are nonpolar, hydrocarbons are hydrophobic. They also provide energy in the forms of things such as fossil fuels and fats.
The functional group most closely resembling sulfhydryl is the _____ group. a. amino b. carboxyl c. hydroxyl d. phosphate e. carbonyl
hydroxyl
Seven chemical groups
hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, methyl The first six groups can act as functional groups; of these six, all except the sulfhydryl group are also hydrophilic and thus increase the solubility of organic compounds in water. The last group, methyl group, is not reactive, but instead often serves as a recognizable tag on biological molecules.
What are examples of an enantiomer?
ibuprofen (S 100x more effective than R); asthma medication albuterol (R effective, S not)
sterioisomers
identical bonding relationships, but the spatial positioning of the atoms differs in the two isomers
Using modern equipment, a former graduate student of Stanley Miller recently reanalyzed the sample results of volcano simulation experiments that Miller conducted along with his classic experiment described in the text. This reanalysis did which of the following? a. greatly expanded Miller's earlier findings by uncovering the traces of cell-like entities being formed in the volcano simulation experiments b. revealed the formation of the same amino acids that Miller initially observed but in a more purified form c. identified additional organic compounds that had not been found by Miller d. contradicted Miller's earlier experimental results and provided more support for an undefined life force as the way organic molecules are made in nature e. None of the listed responses is correct.
identified additional organic compounds that had not been found by Miller The reanalysis gives further weight to the hypothesis that volcanic activity could have provided the energy needed for the abiotic synthesis of organic compounds.
saturated fatty acid
if there are no double bonds between carbon atoms composing a chain then as many hydrogen atoms as possible are bonded to the carbon skeleton
polymer def
long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds
How can you make ATPS
if there is extra energy in the cell to store attaching a phosphate onto a adenosine diphosphate (ADP) if you need energy
functional groups
important chemical groups directly involved in and imperative to chemical reactions, does NOT include methyl group, all are hydrophilic except sulfhydryl
sugar-phosphate backbone
in a polynucleotide (DNA or RNA strand), the alternating chain of sugar and phosphate to which nitrogenous bases are attached, nitrogenous bases are not part of this backbone
how are nucleic acids organized?
in genes
Carbohydrates (CH2O)n
include both sugars and polymers of sugars Carbohydrates have many different functions(N - ratio - could be very small or large)
Carbohydrates
include sugars and the polymers of sugars
carbohydrates
includes both simple sugars, or monosaccharides, and polymers of sugars, or polysaccharides
The number of possible isomers _________ as carbon skeletons __________ in size
increases, increases
Molecules that have the same chemical formula (same numbers of each atom) but different three-dimensional shapes are called _____. a. hydrocarbons b. functional groups c. enantiomers d. isomers e. isotopes
isomers Isomers of carbon compounds can arise in several different ways.
Enantiomers
isomers that are mirror images of each other
Cellulose are ________ of __________ that we don't have the enzymes to get to, so it's a diet food for us- don't have energy we can access
long strands, monosaccharides
functions of lipids
long term energy storage, structural component of cell membranes, and important signaling molecules
fibrous proteins
long, insoluble, structural proteins
Denaturation
loss of normal shape of a protein due to environmental aspects
Nucleotides are composed of (3)
nitrogenous base five carbon sugar one or more phosphate groups
purines
nitrogenous base family that has one 6 membered ring and one 5 membered ring, includes adenine and guanine
pyrimidines
nitrogenous base family that has one 6 membered ring of carbon and nitrogen, includes cytosine, thymine and uracil
What is a nucleotide composed of?
nitrogenous base, five carbon sugar, phosphate group
components of a nucleotide
nitrogenous base, phosphate, pentose sugar
saturated fats
no double bonds
saturated fats
no double bonds between hydrogen atoms... thus many hydrogen atoms as possible is bonded to carbon skeleton. Solid at room temp.
Characteristics of hydrocarbons
non-polar hydrophobic able to undergo rxns that release a relatively large amount of energy
Hydrocarbons
organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen (Carbon skeleton with only hydrogens attached)
hydrocarbon bonds
relatively nonpolar bonds, cause no partial charges and have no ability to form hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic
dehydration synthesis
removes the oxygen and hydrogen during synthesis of new molecule, breaking of H2O to make bonds
sugar-phosphate backbone
repeating pattern of sugar-phosphate units, does not include nitrogenous bases, has a 5' end and a 3' end
monomers
repeating units that serve as the building blocks of a polymer that are smaller molecules are
primary structure
sequence of amino acids (like the order of letters in a long word)
What does the presence of rings in a molecule mean?
several different molecules that create a carbon skeleton
fibrous proteins
shaped like long fibers
Ethanol, propanol, and methanol are three simple alcohols. They can be grouped together because they __________. a. increase the acidity of solutions b. all contain a carbonyl group c. share the same functional group: a hydroxyl d. are hydrophobic e. are soluble in water
share the same functional group: a hydroxyl Alcohols are distinguished by the presence of the hydroxyl (-—OH) functional group.
wireframe protein model
shows backbone with side chains extending from it
Ribbon model of protein model
shows how the single polypeptide chain folds and coils to form the functional protein
Space filling protein model
shows more clearly the globular shape in many proteins, as well as the specific 3D structures
phospholipid
similar to fat molecule but has only two fatty acids attached to glycerol instead of three
monosaccharides
simple sugars in which more complex carbs are built
monosaccharides
simplest carb, known as simple sugars, can act alone or serve as a monomer for di/polysaccharides, generally some combo of CH2O, fructose - 5 sides, galactose - 6 sides, glucose - six-sides (most common and essential to all life), often form ring shapes
Monosaccharides
simplest carbohydrates, monomers from which more complex sugars are constructed. - Glucose, Fructose, Ribose, Glyceraldehyde
RNA (ribonucleic acid)
single stranded, each nucleic acid monomer consists of ribose sugar and nitrogenous bases (AUGC), functions in protein synthesis and gene regulation
enzymes
specialized protein macromolecules that speed up chemical reaction, often breaking down or making something
some roles of proteins are
speeding up chem rxn defense, storage, transport, cellular communication, movement, or structural support
types of polysaccharides
starch in plants and glycogen in animals (energy storage), cellulose in the plans and chitin in invertebrates and many fungi (structure)
Starch vs. Cellulose
starch is for energy cellulose is for structure both in plants
starch vs glycogen
starch is in plants and likes to be in a chain form glycogen is in animals and likes to branch both store energy
Starch vs. Cellulose
starch linkage of a glucose monomers in cellulose every B monomer is upside down in respect to its neighbor many enzymes that can hydrolyze a linkages can't hydrolyze B linkages bc they're different shapes
ex of polysaccharides
starch, glycogen, cellulose
starch
storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose monomers joined by glycosidic linkages, synthesizing starch enables the plant to stock pile surplus glucose (cellular fuel) therefore starch represents stored energy, sugar can later be taken with hydrolysis (ex. amylose)
storage proteins
store amino acids
storage polysaccharides
store sugar for later in this form
What do nucleic acids do?
store, transmit, and express hereditary information
Choose the term that correctly describes the relationship between these two sugar molecules: a. enantiomers b. isotopes c. structural isomers d. cis-trans isomers
structural isomers
Saturated fatty acid
structure that is saturated with hydrogen(Have no double bonds between the carbons and are filled with hydrogens) Solid at room temperature ie Butter
What is organic chemistry?
study of carbon compounds
Organic Chemistry
study of carbon compounds (organic compounds)
antiparallel
subunits run in opposite directions
What does -ose indicate?
sugar
deoxyribose
sugar in DNA, one fewer hydroxyl group than ribose, lacks an oxygen atom on the second ring
Ribose
sugar in RNA
simple carbs
sugars
A chemist wishes to make an organic molecule less acidic. Which of the following functional groups should be added to the molecule in order to do so? a. carboxyl b. sulfhydryl c. hydroxyl d. amino e. phosphate
sulfhydryl
Can form cross-links that stabilize protein structure
sulfhydryl
Which functional group is not present in this molecule? a. carboxyl b. amino c. hydroxyl d. sulfhydryl
sulfhydryl
Which group is not hydrophilic?
sulfhydryl
true or false: ATP is the energy currency of the cell
true;What the cell uses for immediate energy use
The names _________ and ________are interchangeable
"polypeptide"; "proteins"
Four examples of enantiomers with harmful medical side effects:
(S)-thalidomide causes birth defects (S,S)-(+)-ethambutol causes blindness (R)-(-)-naproxen causes liver poisoning D-amphetamine and D-methamphetamine are powerful CNS stimulants
Pyrimidines
(cytosine, thymine, and uracil) have a single six-membered ring
catalyst
(n.) a substance that causes or hastens a chemical reaction; any agent that causes change
Traits of Lipids
- NOT polymers (not made up of monomers) - Many different kinds of lipids and have different jobs (diverse) - fats, phospholipids, and steroids
Hydroxyl group
- OH polar, hydrophilic ethanol
most sugars end in -_________
-ose
Eubacteria
2.7 bya
How many different amino acids are there?
20
How long was the Cenozoic Era?
66 million years
A molecule with the formula C18H36O2 is probably a A) fatty acid. B) carbohydrate. C) hydrocarbon. D) nucleic acid.
A
Choose the term that correctly describes the relationship between these two sugar molecules: A) structural isomers B) cis-trans isomers C) enantiomers D) isotopes
A
If a DNA sample were composed of 15% adenine, what would be the percentage of thymine? A) 15 B) 30 C) 35 D) 50
A
ketone
A carbonyl group in the middle of a carbon skeleton characterizes what?
peptide bond
A peptide bond is the bond between two amino acids.
Hydrophobic Interaction
A type of weak chemical interaction caused when molecules that do not mix with water coalesce to exclude water.
Which functional groups are most likely to be attracted to water?
All except methyl
Which functional group is not present in this molecule? A) carboxyl B) sulfhydryl C) hydroxyl D) amino
B
Use the figures to answer the question. Which molecule can be a result of mercaptoethanol reduction of a disulfide bridge? A) A B) B C) C D) D
B) B
During the synthesis of a polypeptide the next amino acid in the growing polymer is added to which functional group shown in Figure 3.4? A) A B) B C) C D) D E) E
C
If a DNA sample were composed of 15% adenine, what would be the percentage of guanine? A) 15 B) 30 C) 35 D) 50
C
A carbon atom is most likely to form what kind of bond(s) with other atoms? A) ionic B) hydrogen C) covalent D) ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and hydrogen bonds
C) covalent
ethylene
C2H4, when two carbon atoms are joined by a double bond all atoms attached to those carbons are in the same plane and the molecule is flat
ethane
C2H6, a molecule may have more than one tetrahedral group of single-bonded atoms (ethane consists of two such groups)
Carbonyl
C=O
What is a carbonyl group?
C=O
Four main classes of large molecules found in all living things
Carbohydrates , Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids
In reading a line drawing, how do you know where atoms of these elements are in the structure if they are missing form the drawing?
Carbon atoms are located at the intersections, and hydrogen atoms are usually bonded to these carbon atoms to create 4 bonds (carbon needs 4 to be complete).
Enzymes
Catalysts that speed up chemical reactions without being consumed in the reaction
Carbons come in what formations
Chains, branches, and rings
Phosphate group
Charged, ionized to release H+ ions and is acidic
functional groups
Combination of atoms, such as a hydroxyl group (-OH) or an amino group (-NH2), with distinct chemical and physical properties that influences the behavior of the molecule in which it resides.
Hydrocarbons
Compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen
organic compounds
Compounds that contain carbon
Organic compound
Compounds that contains carbon (and hydrogen)
Guanine (G) is always paired with
Cytosine (C)
Ethane
C₂H₆
How many electron pairs does carbon share in order to complete its valence shell? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 E) 8
D
Use the following figure to answer the question. The figure shows the structures of glucose and fructose. These two molecules are ________. A) isotopes B) enantiomers C) cis-trans isomers D) structural isomers
D) structural isomers
structural isomers
Differ in arrangement of atoms.
Amino acids differ in their properties due to what?
Differing side chains called R groups (R is a placeholder for what's "really there")
nucleotides
Each polynucleotide is made of monomers called - composed of nitrogen containing base, five carbon sugar, and one or more phosphate groups
Function of fats
Energy storage - the hydrocarbon chains are similar to gasoline molecules and just as rich in energy, storing more than twice as much as energy as a gram of a polysaccharide. Since plants are relatively immobile, they can function with bulky energy storage in the form of starch. Animals, however, must carry their energy stores with them, so there is an advantage of having a more compact reservoir of fuel--fat.
L-dopa is used to treat _____. a. Marfan's syndrome b. muscle sprains c. Alzheimer's disease d. Parkinson's disease e. laryngitis
Parkinson's disease People with Parkinson's disease lack dopamine.
Starch
Storage polysaccharide for plants that consists entirely of glucose monomers (Alpha conformation: G-G-G-G-G)
Label the molecules testosterone and estradiol and identify the differences.
Testosterone has an O double-bonded to its first carbon ring, instead of estradiol's single-bonded OH (1). Estradiol has two more double-bonds in its first carbon ring than testosterone does (2). Finally, testosterone has a methyl group attached to it (3) which estradiol lacks.
Genomics
The approach used to analyze large sets of genes or compare the genomes of different species
Nucleotide
The building block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and one to three phosphate groups.
Peptide bond
The chemical bond that forms between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another amino acid
Tertiary Structure
The overall shape of a protein molecule due to interactions of amino acid side chains, including hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bridges.
Quaternary Structure
The particular shape of a complex, aggregate protein, defined by the characteristic three-dimensional arrangement of its constituent subunits, each a polypeptide.
Bioinformatics
The use of computers, software, and mathematical models to process and integrate biological information from large data sets.
geometric isomers
These molecules are _____.
(Proteins) Protein Conformation
Unique 3-D shape
F
Which of these is a carboxyl group?
Sickle Cell Disease
a recessively inherited human blood disorder in which a single nucleotide change in the β-globin gene causes hemoglobin to aggregate, changing red blood cell shape and causing multiple symptoms in afflicted individuals
beta pleated sheet
a sheet formed in secondary structure where two or more beta strands (segments of the polypeptide chain) lying side by side are connected by hydrogen bonds
hydrophobic interactions
a.a w/ nonpolar (hydrophobic) r groups end up in clusters at the core of the protein out of contact w/ water once nonpolar a.a r groups are closer together van der walls interactions hold them together creating folds
enzymatic proteins
accelerate chemical reactions
What is the compound name of amino group?
amine
Acts as a base
amino
monomers of protein
amino acids
Phosophodiester bond
bond between nucleosides and nucleotides, nucleosides bond first and then bond to the phosophate in the nuclotide
hydrogen makeup
can never double bond
most abundant organic compound on earth
cellulose
Example of structural protein
collagen
isomers
compounds that have the same numbers of atoms of the same elements but different structures and hence different properties
organic phosphate
contributes negative charge
example of storage proteins (storage of amino acids)
eggs, milk
The key to an atom's chemical characteristics is its ______________.
electron configuration
the bond between the glycerol and the fatty acid is called...
ester bond
What does a methyl group affect?
expression of genes when on DNA/proteins bound to DNA, affects shape/function of M/F sex hormones
pentose
five carbon sugar
amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programmed by ______
genes
How do animals store their nergy through polysaccharides called _____
glycogen; Glycogen is gone after first 20 mins of exercise Animals do not use large amounts of polysaccharide for the storage of energy (plants do)
Carbohydrate bond?
glycosidic bond which is covalent
how many protien structures does Hemoglobin use?
goes from primary to Quaternary
fatty acids include ______________? Polarity? Relationship w/ water? What functional group is included?
hydrocarbon chains that are nonpolar so hydrophobic and a carboxyl group
Why do fats and petroleum not dissolve in water?
hydrophobic with non polar C-H linkages
Is always polar
hydroxyl
carbohydrates
include both sugars and polymers of sugars the simplest are the monosacchardies
sickle-cell disease
inherited blood disorder where amino acid gutamic acid is replaced by valine in the structure of hemoglobin causing the typically disk-shaped red blood cells to be sickle shaped and unable to carry oxygen
example of hormonal proteins
insulin
Enantiomers
isomers that are mirror images of each other and that differ in shape due to the presence of an asymmetric carbon
what determines how a protein acts
its shape
disaccharide
made of two monosaccharides and a glycosidic linkage
Protein makeup
made up of polymers of amino acids called polypeptides
cellulose
major component of the tough cell walls that enclose plant cells NEVER branched
monomers of nucleic acid
nucleotides
Usually only _____ isomer is biologically active
one
Pyrimidine bases structure and bases?
one 6 membered ring C, T, U
Proteins
one or more polypeptides that each fold in a unique way according to their function
nucleoside def
part of the nucleotide w/out any phosphate group
types of bonds for nucleic acids
phosphodiester linkage (covalent)
a highly electronegative atom on the end of an r group will cause the amino acid to be... and a series of hydrocarbons on the end of an r group will cause the amino acid to be...
polar, non-polar
whole chain of peptide bonds
poly-peptide chains
nucleic acids
polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers, blueprint for proteins and (through the actions of proteins) all cellular activities, two types are DNA and RNA
polypeptide
polymer of amino acids
Cellulose is a?
polymer of glucose
starch def
polymer of glucose monomers; stored in plants
polypeptide
polymer of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds
polymer of proteins
polypeptide
glycogen
polysaccharide stored by animals extensively branched
Cellulose
polysaccharide that is a major component of the tough walls that enclose plant cells(To hold a plant up is the accumulation of the cell walls which are primarily made of cellulose)
what are the polymers of monosaccharides
polysaccharides
Carbohydrate macromolecules are?
polysaccharides, polymers composed of many sugar building blocks
nucleoside
portion of a nucleotide without any phosphate groups, just a base and a sugar
deffensive proteins
protect against diease
quaternary protein structure
protein consisting of more than one amino acid chain bonded together to make one molecule, only some proteins do this
denaturation of proteins
protein loses 3D structure and revert to a random-coil state, becomes biologically inactive, pH, excess heat and the disrupting of hydrogen bonds that causes it to unfold, all proteins can denature
denaturation
protein loses its native shape due to disruption of weak chemical bonds and interactions thereby becoming biologically inactive, some proteins can renature if conditions are improved
Chaperonins
protein molecules that assist the proper folding of other proteins
antiparallel
refers to the arrangement of of the sugar-phosophate backbones in a DNA double-helix , they run 5' to 3' in opposite directions
Secondary Structure
regions of repetitive coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone of a protein due to hydrogen bonding between constituents of the backbone (not the side chains)
secondary structure of protein
regions stabilized by hydrogen bonds between atoms of the polypeptide backbone
secondary structure
regions stabilized by hydrogen bonds between atoms of the polypeptide backbone, alpha helix (delicate coil held together by hydrogen bonding between every fourth AA), beta pleated sheets (two or more segments of the polypeptide chain lie side by side and are connected by hydrogen bonds between parts of two parallel segments on the backbone)
What makes RNA different from DNA?
rna has uracil and ribose and dna has thymine and deoxyribose
What do single bonds in carbon compounds allow atoms they join to do?
rotate freely about bond axis without changing (trans fats)
What are isomers?
same number of atoms of same elements but different structures and properties
X-ray crystallography
scientists use this to determine protein conformation
a helix
secondary structure - delicate coil held together by hydrogen bonding between every fourth amino acid
primary struture of a protien
sequenc of amino acids
primary structure of protein
sequence of amino acids
monosaccharide
some multiple of the unit CH2O, usually has a carbonyl group and multiple hydroxyl groups, either ketones or aldehydes, either a ring shape or linear
What does a carboxyl group act as?
source of H+ as acid b/c covalent bond between O and H is so polar H+ tend to dissociate reversibly
enzymes
specialized macro molecules that help speed up chemical reactions
trans fat
starts as unsaterated, excessive heat causes it to become saturated with hydrogen and breaks the double bonds, very bad for you
cholesterol
steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids such as many hormones
cholesterol is a... and plays an important role in...
steroid, membrane function
catalyst
substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed
Valence
the bonding capacity of a given atom; the number of covalent bonds an atom can form, which usually equals the number of unpaired electrons in its outermost (valence) shell
enzymatic degradation
the breakdown of chemicals by enzymes - one of the two mechanisms for deactivating released neurotransmitters
hydrolosis
the breaking of bonds via adding H2O, disesembles monomers/polymers
Nucleotide
the building block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and one to three phosphate groups
3' end
the end of the sugar-phosphate backbone that ends in a 3 carbon ring
hydrophobic reaction
the exclusion of non-polar substances by water molecules
primary protein structure
the forming of the phosphorus back bone and R group, dictates structure and function of protein
hydrophobic
the hydrocarbon tails are hydrophobic
X-ray crystallography
the method most commonly used to determine the 3D shape of a protein molecule(Important in discovery the structure of DNA)
In a double helix All bonds are covalent except what?
the ones between the nitrogenous bases (bonds on ended are covalent) - Only ones that hydrogen bonds are between the As and Ts and Cs and Gs because they can be broken apart
polymerization
the process by which polymers are made
Hydrolysis
the reverse of dehydration synthesis - bond between monomers is broken by the addition of a water molecule, with hydrogen from water attaching to one monomer and the hydroxyl group attaching to adjacent monomer.
sugar monomers and glycosidic linkages
the structure and function of a polysaccharide are determined by its __________ and by the position of its ______ linkages
Primidines (single rings)
thymine, uracil, and cytosine
Next to a double covalent bond, the X's are across from each other
trans isomer
transport protiens
transport substances
polymers of lipids
triglycerides and phospholipids
true or false: X-ray Crystallography is important in discovery the structure of DNA
true
At the beginning of the 19th century, it was thought that the substances that made up living things were special and could not be synthesized by ordinary chemical methods. This now-discarded theory was called the theory of _____. a. mechanism b. materialism c. special creation d. spontaneous generation e. vitalism
vitalism
Which of the following functional groups is present in all amino acids? a. —OPO3-2 b. —SH c. —OH d. —COH e. —NH2
—NH2 This is the amino group. This group is present in all amino acids.
The 7 functional groups:
• Hydroxyl (--OH) • Carbonyl (ketone, aldehyde) (>C=O) • Carboxyl (--COOH) • Amino Group (--NH2) • Sulfhydryl (--SH) • Phosphate (--OPO32-) • Methyl (--CH3)
Carbonyl group (>C = O)
- 4 bonds - Carbon is double bonded to an oxygen
(Carbohydrates) Starch vs Cellulose - Cellulose
- Polymer of Beta Glucose - Unbranched - Most animals don't have the enzymes to digest Ex. Corn, Celery
(Proteins) Primary Configuration
-Sequence of amino acids -Determined by genes and the number
(Carbohydrates) Monosaccharides
-Simple sugars -Monomers of disaccharides or polysaccharides -store energy in chemical bonds
trademarks of a sugar are
1. carbonyl group (C=O) and multiple hydroxyl groups (-OH) 2. Carbon skeleton
amino acids contain what 5 things
1. central carbon 2. amino group 3. carboxyl group 4. hydrogen atom R group
Name the 7 functional groups
1. hydroxyl 2. carbonyl 3. carboxyl 4. amino 5. sulfhydryl 6. phosphate 7. methyl
a typical protein chain may contain... or more amino acids
150-1000
All monosaccharides have what ratio
1C:2H:1O
How many electron pairs does carbon share in order to complete its valence shell? a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4 e. 8
2
What can occur in sulfhydryl groups in terms of interactions?
2 groups can interact forming cross-link helps stabilize protein structure
Glycine's molecular formula is C2H5NO2. How many moles of each element would be needed to make 1.0 mole of glycine? a. 2 moles carbon, 5 moles hydrogen, 1 mole nitrogen, and 2 moles oxygen b. 1 mole each of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen c. 1.2 × 1024 moles of carbon, 3.0 × 1024 moles of hydrogen, 6.02 × 1023 moles of nitrogen, and 1.2 × 1024 moles of oxygen d. 5 moles each of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen
2 moles carbon, 5 moles hydrogen, 1 mole nitrogen, and 2 moles oxygen
quartenary structure
2 or more polypeptide chains into one large protein
there are ... common amino acids that are used to build protein molecules
20
how many amino acids exist?
20, but only 8 essential proteins
When did Pangaea form?
250 mya
What is a cis-isomer?
2H on same side
All carbohydrates have what ratio
2H:O
If a strand of DNA has the nitrogen base sequence 5'-ATTTGC-3', what will be the sequence of the matching strand?
3'-TAAACG-5'
Archaebacteria
3.5 bya
tertiary structure of protein
3D shape of protein
A phosphate group contains _________ oxygen atoms. a. 4 b. 1 c. 3 d. 2 e. 3 or 4, depending on ionization
4
How many bonds can carbon form?
4
A molecule constructed from _____ must contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond. a. 6 hydrogen, 2 carbon b. 6 hydrogen, 3 carbon c. 6 hydrogen, 2 carbon, 1 oxygen d. 8 hydrogen, 3 carbon, 3 oxygen e. 14 hydrogen, 12 carbon
6 hydrogen, 3 carbon
carboxyl group
A -COOH group, found in organic acids.
Ketose
A carbohydrate whose carbonyl group is a ketone
Unsaturated Fatty Acid
A fatty acid possessing one or more double bonds between the carbons in the hydrocarbon tail. Such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton.
Macromolecules
A very large organic molecule composed of many smaller molecules: polysacharides. proteins, nucleic
Use the figures to answer the question. Which molecule has at least one carbon atom attached to three different chemical groups? A) A B) B C) D D) A and B
A) A
How many asymmetric carbons are present in acetic acid, glycine, and glycerol phosphate?
Acetic acid and glycine have no asymmetric carbons, whereas glycerol phosphate has one.
_____ is formed when a Carboxyl Group is added
Acid
What can affect a protein's structure?
Amino acid sequence along with physical and chemical conditions
Molecule with central carbon atom
Amino acids
Collagen is a protein made of three identical polypeptides composed primarily of α helix structure. The α helix is an example of A) secondary structure stabilized by covalent bonds. B) secondary structure stabilized by hydrogen bonds. C) secondary structure stabilized by ionic bonds. D) tertiary structure stabilized by covalent bonds. E) tertiary structure stabilized by hydrogen bonds.
B
DNase is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of the covalent bonds that join nucleotides together. What would first happen to DNA molecules treated with DNase? A) The two strands of the double helix would separate. B) The phosphodiester bonds between deoxyribose sugars would be broken. C) The bases would be separated from the deoxyribose sugars. D) Oxygen atoms would be removed from the deoxyribose sugars.
B
If two of the molecules shown in Figure 3.7 were linked together, carbon-1 of one molecule to carbon-4 of the other, the bond that is formed may be found in which of the following polymers? A) cellulose B) glycogen C) chitin D) polypeptide E) nucleic acid
B
In a normal cellular protein, where would you expect to find a hydrophilic amino acid such as asparagine? A) in the interior of the folded protein, away from water B) on the exterior surface of the protein, interacting with water C) in the transmembrane portion interacting with lipid fatty acid chains D) on the exterior surface of the protein, interacting with water, or in a transmembrane portion interacting with lipid fatty acid chains
B
One of the primary functions of RNA molecules is to A) transmit genetic information to offspring. B) function in the synthesis of proteins. C) make a copy of itself, thus ensuring genetic continuity. D) act as a pattern or blueprint to form DNA.
B
Which molecule shown in Figure 3.6 is a thiol? A) A B) B C) C D) D E) E
B
Which of the following are purines? A) cytosine and guanine B) guanine and adenine C) adenine and thymine D) thymine and uracil E) uracil and cytosine
B
Which of the following are pyrimidines? A) adenine and thymine B) adenine and guanine C) cytosine and uracil D) cytosine and guanine
B
Which of the following best summarizes the relationship between dehydration reactions and hydrolysis? A) Dehydration reactions split water molecules and add hydroxyl groups to polymers, and hydrolysis reactions remove hydroxyl groups from polymers. B) Dehydration reactions assemble polymers, and hydrolysis reactions break down polymers. C) Dehydration reactions create monomers, and hydrolysis reactions assemble polymers. D) Dehydration reactions break down polymers, and hydrolysis reactions create monomers.
B
Which of the following classes of biological molecules consist of both small molecules and macromolecular polymers? A) lipids B) carbohydrates C) proteins D) nucleic acids
B
Which of the following statements about the 5' end of a polynucleotide strand of RNA is correct? A) The 5' end has a hydroxyl group attached to the number 5 carbon of ribose. B) The 5' end has a phosphate group attached to the number 5 carbon of ribose. C) The 5' end has phosphate attached to the number 5 carbon of the nitrogenous base. D) The 5' end has a nitrogenous base attached to the number 5 carbon of ribose.
B
Which of the following statements concerning unsaturated fats is true? A) They are more common in animals than in plants. B) They have double bonds in their fatty acid chains. C) They generally solidify at room temperature. D) They contain more hydrogen than do saturated fats having the same number of carbon atoms.
B
Which of the following statements regarding the chemical reaction illustrated in Figure 3.11 is true? A) It is a hydrolysis reaction. B) It results in a peptide bond. C) It forms a disaccharide. D) It forms two amino acids.
B
Which of the following will dissolve in water? A) organic hydrocarbons B) organic molecules with hydroxyl groups C) carbon skeletons bound to hydrogen D) fats
B
Why are the vertebrate sex hormones estradiol and testosterone considered to be lipids? A) They are essential components of cell membranes. B) Their carbon skeletons are composed of primarily C-C and C-H bonds. C) They are made of fatty acids. D) They are hydrophilic compounds.
B
Use the figures to answer the question. Which molecule shown is a thiol? A) A B) B C) C D) D
B) B
Use the figures to answer the question. Which of the groups is an acidic functional group that can dissociate and release H+ into a solution? A) A B) B C) C D) D
B) B
The kind and number of bonds an atom can form depends on ________. A) its atomic number B) its electron configuration C) its atomic mass D) the number of particles in its nucleus
B) its electron configuration
Which of the functional groups is not reactive but serves as a recognizable tag on the DNA molecule and alter the expression of genes in the cells. A) amino B) methyl C) carboxyl D) hydroxyl
B) methyl
Stanley Miller's 1953 experiments supported the hypothesis that ________. A) life on Earth arose from simple inorganic molecules B) organic molecules can be synthesized abiotically under conditions that may have existed on early Earth C) life on Earth arose from simple organic molecules, with energy from lightning and volcanoes D) the conditions on early Earth were conducive to the origin of life
B) organic molecules can be synthesized abiotically under conditions that may have existed on early Earth
Use the following figure to answer the question. The two molecules shown in the figures are best described as ________. A) enantiomers B) structural isomers C) cis-trans isomers D) chain length isomers
B) structural isomers
Which functional group is not present in this molecule? A) carboxyl B) sulfhydryl C) hydroxyl D) amino
B) sulfhydryl
Organic chemistry is currently defined as A) the study of compounds made only by living cells. B) the study of carbon compounds. C) the study of natural (as opposed to synthetic) compounds. D) the study of hydrocarbons.
B) the study of carbon compounds.
In an ethane (C2H6) molecule, each carbon atom is bonded to ________ hydrogen atoms. A) two B) three C) four D) six
B) three
Which of the groups in Figure 3.4 is an acidic functional group that can dissociate and release H+ into a solution? A) A B) B C) C D) D E) E
C
Which of the pairs of molecular structures shown depict enantiomers (enantiomeric forms) of the same molecule?
C
carbonyl group
C double bonded to O with two more open bonds, hydrophilic
How many electrons does one atom of carbon share to complete its valence shell? A) 2 B) 3 C) 4 D) 8
C) 4
Use the figures to answer the question. Which functional group shown can pick up protons and raise the pH of the surrounding solution? A) A B) B C) C D) D
C) C
Which chemical group is most likely to be responsible for an organic molecule behaving as a base? A) hydroxyl B) carbonyl C) amino D) phosphate
C) amino
Use the following figure to answer the question. The figure shows the structures of glucose and fructose. These two molecules differ in the ________. A) number of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms B) types of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms C) arrangement of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms D) number of oxygen atoms joined to carbon atoms by double covalent bonds
C) arrangement of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms
carbonyl group elements? Compound name?
C=O Ketone if in a carbon skeleton aldehyde if it is at the end of the carbon skeleton
non polar amino acid groups?
CH2 or CH3
Monosaccharides are usually multiples of what?
CH2O (ex. triose/glyceraldehyde is C3H6O3)
methane
CH4. Forms a tetrahedron
What elements make up proteins? What about sometimes?
CHON sometimes S
3.1
Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms
carboxyl group
Carbon double bonded to oxygen but also attached to a hydroxyl group Types: Carboxylic acid I.e. acetic acid → gives vinegar the sour taste Organic acid Combo of hydroxyl and carbonyl group Acid character Ionized form of -COOH (carboxylate ion) is found in cells
Carbon makes 4 covalent bonds because
Carbon has 4 valence electrons
Organic compounds MUST contain _________. also typically identifiable by containing _____________
Carbon; hydrogen
Glucose
Carbonyl Group, and mult. hydroxyl groups Energy for organisms
Which functional group is this? (Compound name: Ketone, Aldehyde)
Carbonyl group
Which functional group is this? (Compound name: Carboxylic acid, organic acid)
Carboxyl Group
Cellulose vs Starch
Cellulose: - never branches - in plant cell walls, parallel cellulose molecules held together are grouped into units called microfibrils, which are strong building material for plants and an important substance for products like paper - the unbranched structure allows it to give strength to the plant - beta configuration Starch - largely helical shape - different three-dimensional shape from cellulose - alpha configuration
Carboxyl group
Charged, ionized to release H+ ions and thus is considered to be acidic acetic acid
catalysts
Chemical agents that selectively speed up chemical reactions without being consumed by the reaction.
Steroid Hormones
Chemical messengers used for communication and regulation in out bodies (Some hormones are proteins and some are steroids) ie: vertebrate sex hormones estrogen and testosterone)
Use the figure to answer the question. What is the name of the functional group shown in the figure? A) carbonyl B) ketone C) aldehyde D) carboxyl
D) carboxyl
Primates appear for the first time.
Oligocene
Pyrimidine
One of two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides, characterized by a six-membered ring. Cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U) are pyrimidines.
mRNA processing
RNA transcripts is spliced and modified to produce mRNA which moves from nucleus to cytoplasm
Antiparallel
Referring to the arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix
What does fat do?
Stores energy, compact way for animals to carry their energy, and acts like a protective layer/cushion
What is the function of DNA and RNA?
Stores info and transfers it from generation to generation or immediately from inside the nucleus of the cell to outside(Function for dna and rna is "information transfer")
Carbon chaines form skeletons. List the ypes of skeletons that can be formed.
Straight, branched, closed ring
D
Which of these is a hydroxyl group?
B
Which of these is a phosphate group?
carboxylic acid
acts as an acid
Nitrogenous bases in DNA
adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine
glycerol
alcohol with hydroxile group
The valence electrons are most available to form _______________.
bonds
What is the key to an atom's characteristics? Why?
electron configuration bc this determines the kind and # of bonds an atom will form w/ other atoms
Functions of lipids
energy storage
ex of proteins
enzymes
Life would not be possible without what?
enzymes (ex. digestive enzymes)
All of the chemical reactions in our cells must be facilitated by what?
enzymes; Enzymes are specialized and only do one kind of chemical reaction
thiol
forms disulfide bonds
hydroxyl group
functional group of alcohols
Carbon
has 6 electrons with 2 in the first electron shell and 4 in the second shell (4 valence electrons in a shell that can hold up to 8 electrons), usually completes its valence shell by sharing its 4 electrons with other atoms so that 8 electrons are present, each pair of shared electrons constitutes a covalent bond In organic molecules, each carbon atom acts as an intersection point from which a molecule can branch off in as many as four directions. This enables carbon to form large, complex molecules
DNA
has genetic information
unsaturated fatty acid
has one or more double bonds with one fewer hydrogen atom on each double bonded carbon
How does DNA move in the call?
has to stay in the nucleus - never leaves nucleus
characteristics that all lipids share
hydrophobic and result of mostly hydrocarbon regions that are non-polar
seven chemical groups
hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, methyl
enzymes def
specialized macromolecules (usually proteins) that speed up chem rxns
quarternary structure
the shape resulting from the association of two or more polypeptide subunits.
True or false: phospholipids have Hydrophilic part and a hydrophobic part to them
true
true or false: Dna - database for the cell rna - transfer of information from the inside to outside of the nucleus and for gene regulation
true
What is the source of complexity and diversity for carbon?
variation in carbon skeletons
Carbon
- 6 electrons (2 in first shell, 4 in second) - completes it valence shell by sharing its 4 elections with other atoms so that 8 electrons are present - Each pair of shared electrons constitutes a covalent bond. - Each Carbon Atom acts an an intersection point from which a molecule can branch off as many as 4 directions.... one facet of carbon's versatility that makes large, complex molecules possible.
(Nucleic Acids) Nucleotides consist of:
- A-5-carbon sugar - A phosphate - A nitrogen base
(Proteins) Tertiary Configuration
-Globular proteins -Irregular contortion -Enzymes -Shape stabilized by hydrogen bonds
What is a phosphate group?
-PO3 -2 (oxygen single to phosphate with double bond to O on top and 2 single OH)
(Nucleic Acids) Nitrogenous Bases:
-Pyrimidines have a single ring structure -Cytosine and Thymine(DNA) -Uracil (in RNA replaces Thymine) - Purines have a double ring structure -Guanine and Adenine (DNA)
(Proteins) Secondary Configuration
-Regular repeated folding of peptide chain -Folding stabilized by hydrogen bonds Ex. Beta Pleated and Alpha Helix
sulfhydryl group
-SH, thiols, hydrophobic
fats
-not plymers but still large molec assembled from smaller molecules by dehydration reactions - constructed from glyceral and fatty acids
What is the secondary level structure of a protein?
1. Regions stabilized by hydrogen bonds between atoms of the polypeptide backbone (Arises from the primary structure) 2. When you start building the primary structure, the amino acids will start to interact and make one of two shapes (A helix - Like a slinky Beta β sheet - Like a paper fan) 3. Long protein - parts can be helix and parts can be beta sheet (depending on the parts of the amino acids)
Of the four major macromolecular compound categories...
3 are polymers; (Proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids are all polymers (NOT lipids))
Triose
3 carbon sugar
triose
3 carbon sugars
How many single or double covalent bonds can carbon form?
4
How many valence electrons does carbon have?
4
What valence number is super versatile
4
therose
4 carbon sugar, gave rise to RNA and then in turn DNA
A straight-chain carbon compound constructed from __________ must contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond. a. 8 hydrogen atoms, 3 carbon atoms, and 3 oxygen atoms b. 6 hydrogen atoms and 2 carbon atoms c. 6 hydrogen atoms and 3 carbon atoms d. 14 hydrogen atoms and 6 carbon atoms e. 6 hydrogen atoms, 2 carbon atoms, and 1 oxygen atom
6 hydrogen atoms and 3 carbon atoms There must be a carbon-carbon double bond for this molecule to exist.
The side chain (R group) of the amino acid serine is -CH2-OH. The side chain of the amino acid leucine is -CH2-CH-(CH3)2. Where would you expect to find these amino acids in a globular protein in aqueous solution? A) Serine would be on the exterior, and leucine would be in the interior of the globular protein. B) Serine would be in the interior, and leucine would be on the exterior of the globular protein. C) Both serine and leucine would be in the interior of the globular protein. D) Both serine and leucine would be on the exterior of the globular protein.
A
Which of the following compounds are formed by dehydration reactions? A) triacylglycerols B) monosaccharides C) amino acids D) fatty acids
A
Protein
A biologically functional molecule consisting of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific three-dimensional structure.
Aldose
A carbohydrate whose carbonyl group is an aldehyde
Fatty Acid
A carboxylic acid with a long carbon chain.
Catalyst
A chemical agent that selectively increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.
Organic Compound
A chemical compound containing carbon.
Alpha Helix
A coiled region constituting one form of the secondary structure of proteins, arising from a specific pattern of hydrogen bonding between atoms of the polypeptide backbone
Disaccharide
A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage, a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration synthesis. The most prevalent is sucrose. Disaccharides must be broken down into monosaccharides to be used for energy by organisms.
Saturated fatty acid
A fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds, thus maximizing the number of hydrogen atoms that can attach to the carbon skeleton. Hard at room temperature
Unsaturated fatty acid
A fatty acid possessing one or more double bonds between the carbons in the hydrocarbon tail, with one fewer hydrogen atom on each double-bonded carbon. Such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton. Liquid at room temperature
Ribose
A five-carbon sugar present in RNA.
What are the two shapes proteins make when they beginning to interact in the secondary level?
A helix - Like a slinky or Beta β sheet - Like a paper fan
Phospholipid
A molecule that is a constituent of the inner bilayer of biological membranes, having a polar, hydrophilic head and a nonpolar, hydrophobic tail.
Pyrimidine
A nitrogenous base that has a single-ring structure; one of the two general categories of nitrogenous bases found in DNA and RNA; thymine, cytosine, or uracil
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
A nucleic acid molecule, usually a double-stranded helix, in which each polynucleotide strand consists of nucleotide monomers with a deoxyribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T); capable of being replicated and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins.
quaternary structure of a protein
A number of polypeptide chains linked together, and sometimes associated with non-protein groups to form a protein.
Polypeptide
A polymer (chain) of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds
Nucleic Acid
A polymer (polynucleotide) consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a blueprint for proteins and, through the actions of proteins, for all cellular activities. The two types are DNA and RNA.
Polynucleotide
A polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers in a chain. The nucleotides can be those of DNA or RNA.
Polynucleotides
A polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers in a chain; nucleotides can be those of DNA or RNA.
Polypeptides
A polymer of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds.
Polypeptide
A polymer of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
Polysaccharide
A polymer of many monosaccharides, formed by dehydration reactions.
condensation reaction (dehydration synthesis)
A reaction that joins monomers or polymers; two molecules are covalently bonded to each other, with the loss of a small molecule.
Sickle- cell disease
A recessively inherited human blood disorder in which a single nucleotide change in the beta-globin gene causes hemoglobin to aggregate, changing red blood cell shape and causing multiple symptoms in afflicted individuals.
Sickle-Cell Disease
A recessively inherited human blood disorder in which a single nucleotide change in the β-globin gene causes hemoglobin to aggregate, changing red blood cell shape and causing multiple symptoms in afflicted individuals.
Chitin
A structural polysaccharide, consisting of amino sugar monomers, found in many fungal cell walls and in the exoskeletons of all arthropods.
Carbohydrates
A sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its dimers (disaccharides) or polymers (polysaccharides).
X-ray Crystallography
A technique that depends on the diffraction of an X-ray beam by the individual atoms of a crystallized molecule to study the three-dimensional structure of the molecule.
X-ray Crystallography
A technique used to study the three-dimensional structure of molecules. It depends on the diffraction of an X-ray beam by the individual atoms of a crystallized molecule.
Glycerol
A three-carbon alcohol to which fatty acids are covalently bonded to make fats and oils.
Steroid
A type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings with various chemical groups attached.
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
A type of nucleic acid consisting of a polynucleotide made up of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U); usually single-stranded; functions in protein synthesis, gene regulation, and as the genome of some viruses.
Hydrophobic Interaction
A type of weak chemical bond formed when molecules that do not mix with water coalesce to exclude the water.
Some carbon skeletons have different numbers and locations of double bonds to ________. A) add molecular complexity and diversity that characterize living matter B) be more flexible that makes the molecule stronger C) stay in its liquid state D) increase its solubility in water
A) add molecular complexity and diversity that characterize living matter
Which of the following molecules is a part of ATP? A) adenosine B) cytosine C) guanine D) uracil
A) adenosine
Choose the term that correctly describes the relationship between these two sugar molecules: A) structural isomers B) cis-trans isomers C) enantiomers D) isotopes
A) structural isomers
The complexity and variety of organic molecules is due to ________. A) the chemical versatility of carbon atoms B) the variety of rare elements in organic molecules C) the diverse bonding patterns of nitrogen D) their interaction with water
A) the chemical versatility of carbon atoms
What is an important source of energy for cellular processes?
ATP
How does an aldehyde group differ from a ketone group? a. The ketone is polar; the aldehyde isn't b. The aldehyde is polar; the ketone isn't c. The ketone occurs in sugars; the aldehyde doesn't d. The aldehyde contains C=O; the ketone doesn't e. Aldehydes, but not ketones, have H bound to C=O
Aldehydes, but not ketones, have H bound to C=O
A new organism is discovered in the forests of Costa Rica. Scientists there determine that the polypeptide sequence of hemoglobin from the new organism has 72 amino acid differences from humans, 65 differences from a gibbon, 49 differences from a rat, and 5 differences from a frog. These data suggest that the new organism is more closely related to A) humans than to frogs. B) frogs than to humans. C) rats than to frogs. D) humans than to rats. E) gibbons than to rats.
B
The molecular formula for glucose is C6H12O6. What would be the molecular formula for a molecule made by linking three glucose molecules together by dehydration reactions? A) C18H36O18 B) C18H32O16 C) C6H10O5 D) C18H30O15 E) C16H36O16
B
The molecular formula for glucose is C6H12O6. What would be the molecular formula for a polymer made by linking ten glucose molecules together by dehydration reactions? A) C60H120O60 B) C60H102O51 C) C60H100O50 D) C60H111O51
B
Use the figure to answer the question. Thalidomide and L-dopa (see figure) are examples of pharmaceutical drugs that occur as enantiomers, or molecules that ________. A) have identical three-dimensional shapes B) are mirror images of one another C) are mirror images of one another and have the same biological activity D) are cis-trans isomers
B) are mirror images of one another
Compared to a hydrocarbon chain where all the carbon atoms are linked by single bonds, a hydrocarbon chain with the same number of carbon atoms but with one or more double bonds will ________. A) be more flexible in structure B) be more constrained in structure C) be more polar D) have more hydrogen atoms
B) be more constrained in structure
What determines whether a carbon atom's covalent bonds to other atoms are in a tetrahedral configuration or a planar configuration? A) the presence or absence of bonds with oxygen atoms B) the presence or absence of double bonds between the carbon atom and other atoms C) the polarity of the covalent bonds between carbon and other atoms D) the solvent in which the organic molecule is dissolved
B) the presence or absence of double bonds between the carbon atom and other atoms
Hydrolysis
Breaking down complex molecules (polymers are disassembled to monomers) by the chemical addition of a water molecule--a hydrogen from water attaching to one monomer and the hydroxyl group attacking to the other.
Hydrolysis
Breaking down complex molecules by the chemical addition of water
The tertiary structure of a polypeptide is the A) linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide. B) localized region of a polypeptide chain that forms an α helix or β pleated sheet. C) overall three-dimensional shape of a fully folded polypeptide. D) overall three-dimensional shape of a protein composed of more than one polypeptide.
C
The two molecules shown in Figure 3.1 are best described as A) optical isomers. B) enantiomers. C) structural isomers. D) cis-trans isomers.
C
There are 20 different amino acids. What makes one amino acid different from another? A) different side chains (R groups) attached to the carboxyl carbon B) different side chains (R groups) attached to the amino groups C) different side chains (R groups) attached to an α carbon D) different asymmetric carbons
C
What is a common chemical reaction mechanism by which cells make polymers from monomers? A) decreasing the pH B) hydrolysis reactions C) dehydration reactions D) the formation of disulfide bridges between monomers
C
Which molecule shown in Figure 3.5 has a carbonyl functional group in the form of a ketone? A) A B) B C) C D) D E) E
C
Which molecule(s) shown in Figure 3.5 is (are) ionized in a cell? A) A only B) B and D C) D and E D) D only E) E only
C
Which of the following categories includes all others in the list? A) disaccharide B) starch C) carbohydrate D) polysaccharide
C
Which of the following describes the molecule shown in Figure 3.7? A) pentose B) fructose C) α glucose D) β glucose E) ribose
C
Which of the following hydrocarbons has a double bond in its carbon skeleton? A) C3H8 B) C2H6 C) C2H4 D) C2H2
C
Which of the following illustrations is not a structural isomer of an organic compound with the molecular formula C6H14? For clarity, only the carbon skeletons are shown; hydrogen atoms that would be attached to the carbons have been omitted.
C
Which of the following is a correct monomer/polymer pairing? A) monosaccharide/polypeptide B) amino acid/polysaccharide C) amino acid/polypeptide D) glycerol/triglyceride
C
Amino group
Charged, tends to pick up H+ ions and thus is a base glycine
Isomers
Compounds with the same formula but different structures and properties.
Isomers
Compounds with the same formula but different structures.
Isomers
Compounds with the same numbers of atoms of the same elements but different structures and hence difference properties. The three types are structural, cis-trans/geometric, and enantiomers.
A double-stranded DNA molecule contains a total of 120 purines and 120 pyrimidines. This DNA molecule could be composed of A) 120 adenine and 120 uracil molecules. B) 120 adenine and 120 guanine molecules. C) 120 cytosine and 120 thymine molecules. D) 120 thymine and 120 adenine molecules.
D
How many molecules of water are needed to completely hydrolyze a polysaccharide that is 10 monomers long? A) 12 B) 11 C) 10 D) 9
D
The sequence 5'-GAACUT- 3' may be found in which of the following? A) DNA only B) RNA only C) either DNA or RNA D) neither DNA nor RNA
D
Which molecule shown in Figure 3.5 contains a carboxyl group? A) A B) B C) C D) D E) E
D
Which of the following functional groups may be used to form polymers via dehydration reactions? A) only hydroxyl groups B) only carbonyl groups C) only carboxyl groups D) either hydroxyl or carboxyl groups E) either carbonyl or carboxyl groups
D
Which of the groups shown in Figure 3.4 is a functional group that helps stabilize proteins by forming covalent cross-links within or between protein molecules? A) A B) B C) C D) D E) E
E
3
How many hydrogen atoms can be attached to carbon A?
1
How many hydrogen atoms can be attached to carbon B?
Denaturation
Loss of a protein's native structure (unravels) due to alterations in pH, salt concentration, and temperature (ex. cooking an egg white; acid in eye); biologically inactive
the middle structure of a double helix is?
Middle structures are called nitrogenous bases- meaning has a lot of nitrogen in them
The dominant forms of life are angiosperms, mammals, and the first direct human ancestors.
Miocene
Geometric isomers
Molecules that differ in the arrangement of their atoms about a double bond are known as what?
Amino Group (-NH2)
Nitrogen attached to 3 hydrogens(must have 3 bonds when having nitrogen) Amine - tends to act as a base Glycine - an amino acid (note its carboxyl group)
hydroxyl group
OH-, hydrophilic
Pharmaceutical companies are selling billions of dollars' worth of single-enantiomer drugs. Why might it be important to use only one form of an enantiomer? a. It is not important. Both enantiomers will be equally effective. b. It is cheaper to manufacture only one of the enantiomers. c. The left-handed version of the enantiomer is always the effective one. d. It is not important. Enantiomers constantly flip from right-handed to left-handed. e. One enantiomer may provide an effective treatment whereas the other may be ineffective or even toxic.
One enantiomer may provide an effective treatment whereas the other may be ineffective or even toxic. Depending on the body's ability to recognize and use different enantiomers, one version may have dangerous effects, as in the case of methamphetamine.
Beta Pleated Sheet
One form of the secondary structure of proteins in which the polypeptide chain folds back and forth. Two regions of the chain lie parallel to each other and are held together by hydrogen bonds between atoms of the polypeptide backbone
Cis-Trans Isomer
One of two or more compounds that have the same molecular formula and covalent bonds between atoms but differ in the spatial arrangements of their atoms owing to the inflexibility of double bonds; formerly called a geometric isomer.
Isomers
One of two or more compounds that have the same numbers of atoms of the same elements but different structures and hence different properties
Isomer
One of two or more compounds that have the same numbers of atoms of the same elements but different structures and hence different properties.
Purine
One of two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides, characterized by a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring. Adenine (A) and guanine (G) are purines.
storage polysaccharides in plants
Plants store starch, a polymer of glucose monomers, as granules within cells. This enables the plant to stockpile surplus glucose, and thus starch represents stored energy. The sugar can later be withdrawn by the plant from this carbohydrate "bank" by hydrolysis, which breaks the bonds between the glucose monomers. Most of the glucose molecules monomers in starch are joined by 1-4 linkages (number 1 carbon to number 4 carbon).
(Functional Groups) Hydroxyl Group
Polar - Alcohols
(Functional Groups) Phosphate Group
Polar - Important in energy transfer
(Functional Groups) Carbonyl Group
Polar - Ketones - aldehydes
Chitin
Polysaccharide found in arthropod exoskeletons and fungal cell walls. Similar to cellulose except that the glucose monomer of chitin has a nitrogen-containing attachment.
polypeptide backbone
Repeating sequence of atoms (-N-C-C-) that forms the core of a protein molecule and to which the amino acid side chains are attached.
Water with dissolved organic molecules, including formaldehyde, hydrogen cyanide, amino acids, and hydrocarbons.
Samples from the Urey-Miller Experiment
Adenosine Triphosphate
See ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
How does X-ray crystallography work?
Shoot x rays through a crystal that scatters and bounce x rays off of a molecule, and those x rays bounce onto a detecting screen so you get an x ray(photo) of these molecules as they're bouncing off the screen(By studying what's on the screen, you can discern the shape of molecule Use with proteins a lot Similar to echolocation of a bat)
Identify the three types of isomers. For each type, give a key character and an example.
Structural isomers such as pentane and 2-methylbutane differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms; the locations of double bonds may also vary. Geometric isomers such as rhodopsin's have the same covalent partnerships, but differ in their spatial arrangements due to the inflexibility of double bonds, which must be reassembled as, unlike single bonds, they cannot simply be rotated. An atom or group of atoms attached to a double-bonded carbon may be on the same side (cis) or on opposite sides (trans). Enantiomers such as ibuprofen's differ in spatial arrangement around an asymmetric carbon, resulting in molecules that are mirror images of each other and thus named L or D after the Latin terms for left and right (levo and dextro, respectively).
Hydroxyl Functional Group
Structure: (-OH): H atom bonded to an O atom bonded to the C skeleton ex. ethanol Properties: •Polar due to presence of electronegative oxygen atom. •Can form H-bonds with water molecules, helping dissolve the organic compounds to which it is attached (like sugars)
Carboxyl Functional Group
Structure: (-COOH): O atom double-bonded to a C atom also bonded to an -OH group ex. acetic acid (gives vinegar its sour taste) Properties: •Has acidic properties (it's a source of H+ ions) because the covalent bond between oxygen and hydrogen is so polar ex. Acetic acid dissociates into acetate ion •Found in cells in ionized form (with -1 charge) These are called carboxylate ions
Amino Functional Group
Structure: (-NH2): N atom bonded to two H atoms and to the C skeleton ex. Glycine - because it also has a carboxyl group, glycine is both an amine and a carboxylic acid - Compounds with both of these groups are called AMINO ACIDS Properties: • Acts as a base (can pick up an H+ from surrounding solution; water in living organisms) • Ionizes (with +1 charge) under cellular conditions
Sulfhydrl Functional Group
Structure: S atom bonded to H atom ex. Cysteine - an important sulfur-containing amino acid Properties: •2 sulfhydryl groups can react, forming a covalent bond (this "cross-linking" helps stabilize protein structure) - Cross-linking of cysteines in hair proteins maintains curliness or straightness of hair - Straight hair can be curled with curlers by breaking and reforming the cross-linking bonds)
Ribose
The sugar component of RNA nucleotides.
Carboxylic group
The two electronegative oxygens of this group pull electrons away from the hydrogen atom. This weakens the bond between oxygen and hydrogen, and the hydrogen atom tends to dissociate from the molecule as a hydrogen (H+) ion. Because it donates hydrogen ions, this group is acidic, and molecules that contain these groups are known as carboxylic acids. Click on the functional group just described.
What determines protein structure?
They always have a vulnerability or weakness: denaturation
Which of the following is a false statement concerning amino groups? a. They are basic in pH. b. They are found in amino acids. c. They contain nitrogen. d. They are nonpolar. e. They are components of urea.
They are basic in pH.
Carbonyl group
This group is polar because oxygen has a strong attraction for electrons. If this group is at the end of a carbon skeleton, the molecule is called an aldehyde; otherwise it is called a ketone. Click on this functional group.
(Carbohydrates) Triose, Pentose, Hexose
Triose- 3 carbons(ex. glyceraldehyde) Pentose- 5 carbons(ex. ribose; deoxyribose) Hexose- 6 carbons(ex. glucose; fructose)
Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form molecules that are large, complex, and varied. a. True b. False
True
Hydrocarbons are major chemical components of the substance used to fuel most of today's vehicles. a. True b. False
True
two types of carbonyl groups
Two types: Ketones- If the carbonyl group is within the carbon skeleton I.e acetone Aldehydes- If the carbonyl group is at the end of a carbon skeleton I.e. propanal
ester linkage
a bond between a hydroxyl group and a carboxyl group
ester linkage
a bond between a hydroxyl group and a carboxyl group - in making a fat, three fatty acid molec are each joined to glyceral by ester linkage
Macromolecule
a giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules, usually by a dehydration reaction. polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids are macromolecules
Phospholipids
a lipid consisting of a glycerol bound to two fatty acids and a phosphate group.
Triacylglycerol
a lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule; also called a fat or triglyceride
Starch (polysaccharide)
a long chain of repeating sugar units formed by joining simple sugars by dehydration synthesis.
polymer
a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds
carbon skeletons
a. length (vary in how long they are) b. branching (may be branched or unbranched) c. double bond position (may have double bonds which can vary in location) d. presence of rings (some skeletons arranged in rings, each corner represents a carbon and its attached hydrogens)
What is an example of a carboxyl group?
acetic acid
In 1845, Adolph Wilhelm Kolbe was able to make ___________________ from pure elements.
acetic acid (vinegar)
What is an example of carbonyl?
acetone (simplest ketone), propanal (aldehyde)
Choose the pair of terms that correctly completes this sentence about functional groups in organic chemistry: Carboxyl is to __________ as __________ is to base. a. hydroxyl ... amino b. sulfhydryl ... carbonyl c. acid ... amino d. acid ... carbonyl e. ketone ... phosphate
acid ... amino A carboxyl group has acidic properties because it can donate a proton (hydrogen ion) to a solution. The amino group acts as a base because it can pick up or accept a proton (hydrogen ion) from a solution.
Proteins: An carboxyl group acts like a ______________
acid since it releases H+ into the environment
when the R group is negatively charged is it acidic or basic?
acidic
amine
acts as a base
nitrogenous bases in RNA
adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil
ATP consists of what?
adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
adenine-containing nucleoside triphosphate that releases free energy when its phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed, energy is used to drive endergonic reactions in cells
What is ATP?
adenosine triphophate (attached to string of 3 phosphate)
hydroxyl group
alcohol, -OH
What are carbonyl sugars with aldehydes?
aldoses
Genome
all of the genes in something
what are the geometrical isomers of glucose?
alpha and beta glucose
why are RNA molecules more variable in shape than DNA molecules
base pairings can occur in 2 ways... between 2 RNA molecules or between 2 stretches of nucleotides in the same RNA molecule
Proteins: An amino group acts like a ______________
base since it absorbs H+ from the environment
What does an amino group act as?
base, can pick up H+ from surrounding solution
why don't protein-protien bonds in Quaternary structures use disulfide bridges?
because the covalent bonds take too much energy to break
protein
biologically functional macromolecule made of many polypeptide chains, folded and coiled into a specific 3D structure, make up more than 50% of the dry mass of cells and functions include: defense, storage, transportation, cellular communication, movement, structural support, speed up chemical reactions
proteins
biologically functional molecule consisting of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific three-dimensional structure, account for more than 50% of cell mass some speed up chemical reactions, play a role in defense, storage, transport, communication, movement, or structural support
protein def
biologically functioning molecular consisting of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific 3D structure
ester linkage
bond between a hydroxyl group and carboxyl group, bonds glycerol to fatty acids
peptide bond
bond between amino acid monomers that create a polypeptide chain, caused by a dehydration reaction between the carboxyl group and amino group
ester linkage
bond between hydroxle and carboxyle group in lipids, result of dehydration reaction
What shape forms when 2 carbon are joined by double bonds?
bonds from both carbon all in same plane (double bonds bend)
storage polysacharide
both plants and animals store sugar for later use
functions of proteins
build/break things lots of functions
Monomers
building blocks of polymers
microfibrils
cable like units made of parallel cellulose molecule that are great for building material, bonded by hydrogen bonds, makes cotton and paper
ATP can be converted to what? How?
can be converted into ADP (adenosine diphosphate) by taking a phosphate off - What the cell uses for immediate energy use - Type of nucleic acids
enzyme activity is optimal at what temp and ph range
can't be too hot or too cold ph: 6-8
chitin
carb used by anthropods to build their exoskeletons or in fungi to build cell walls similar to cellulose except glucose monomers have nitrogen-containing appendages
Macromolecules
carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids
ex of macromolecules
carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids
The _____________ atom is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules. It is the key element around which living matter is organized.
carbon
Which element is always associated with organic chemistry? a. hydrogen b. oxygen c. sulfur d. carbon e. nitrogen
carbon Compounds containing carbon are said to be organic.
The large diversity of shapes of biological molecules is possible because of the extensive presence of _____ in the molecules. a. hydrogen b. sulfur c. nitrogen d. carbon e. oxygen
carbon With four electrons to share, carbon-based molecules can be multibranching and three-dimensionally variable.
elements in carbs
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
elements in lipids
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
elements in proteins
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur
elements in nucleic acids
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus
cis-trans isomers
carbons have covalent bonds to the same atoms, but these atoms differ in their spatial arrangements due to the inflexibility of double bonds
From your knowledge of organic chemistry, which functional group would you predict is part of abscisic acid (ABA)? a. sulfhydryl b. carboxyl c. amino d. carbonyl e. hydroxyl
carboxyl
Has acidic properties
carboxyl
Citric acid makes lemons taste sour. Which of the following is a functional group that would cause a molecule such as citric acid to be acidic? a. hydrocarbon b. amino c. carboxyl d. hydroxyl e. carbonyl
carboxyl The carboxyl group can release a hydrogen ion when in solution.
what interacts during a dehydration rxn for peptide bonds
carboxyl and amino group
Which functional group would you predict is part of abscisic acid? a. amino group b. hydroxyl group c. carbonyl group d. carboxyl group e. sulfhydryl group
carboxyl group Compounds containing the carboxyl functional group (—COOH) are known as carboxylic acids or organic acids. They can donate a hydrogen ion (proton) to a solution due to a highly polar oxygen atom of the functional group.
enzymatic proteins
carry out metabolic reactions
enzymatic proteins
carry out metabolic reactions directly ( act as catalysts)
Phospholipids are major constituents of what?
cell membranes
What are functional groups?
certain properties, shape or charge, participate in chemical reaction
how will changing aq to nonpolar solvent affect protein structure
chain will refold w/ hydrophobic regions facing outward
fatty acids
chains of carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atoms
polysaccharide
chains of monosaccharides bonded with glycosidic linkages, can be used as storage material and building material
how can a change in a protein's primary structure dramatically alter its overall function
change in primary structure affects a proteins shape and a proteins function
catalysts
chem agents that selectively speed up chem rxn w/out being consumed in the rxn
hydrolysis
chemical reaction that breaks bonds between two molecules by the addition of water, disassembles polymers into monomers, ex. digestion
In a helix Bonds between letters are hydrogen bonds so that they can what?
come apart and go back together in order to gather and store information, all others are covalent bonds (stronger)
What does an overall percentage of major elements in life being quite uniform support?
common evolutionary origin of life
What is organic?
contains carbon
hormonial proteins
coordinate activities in the body
A carbon atom is most likely to form what kind of bond(s) with other atoms? a. ionic b. hydrogen c. covalent d. ionic and hydrogen only e. ionic, hydrogen, and covalent
covalent
ester bond, peptide bonds, and glycosidic bonds are all
covalent
glycosidic linkage
covalent bond between 2 monosaccharides due to dehydration synthesis
Glycosidic bond
covalent bond between two monosaccharides
types of bonds for carbs
covalent bonds
disulfide bridges
covalent bonds between two cysteine monomers, another type of bond in tertiary structure that allows the protein to fold and coil
disulfide bridges
covalent bonds that reinforce the shape of a protein
monomer
covalently bonded building blocks that make up a large molecule called a polymer
why is cellulose important to cows?
cows have cellulose digesting prokaryotes and protists in their stomachs. These are able to hydrolyze cellulose in their diet and convert the glucose into other compounds that nourish the cow
Cholesterol
crucial steriod in animals - common compnent of animal cell membranes and precurcer from which other steriods are made - in vertibrates it is synthesized in liver and obtained from diet
Cholesterol
crucial steroid and component in animals and in animal cell membranes(Common component of animal cell membranes and is the precursor for other steroids)
cholesterol
crucial steroid in animals, part of cell membranes and facilitate movement of large molecules, helps make other steroids like sex hormones
What is a common chemical reaction mechanism by which cells make polymers from monomers?
dehydration reactions
How do you put monomers together to make a polymer
dehydration rxns aka condensation rxn; two molecules joined by the removal of a water molecule
what type of reaction connects monomers into dimers and then into polymers
dehydration synthesis (covalently bonded)
DNA and RNA put together through ___________ and broken through ________
dehydration synthesis ; hydrolysis
ATP
energy currency of cell, has a 5 carbon ribosugar and three phosophate, ATP gives energy through electrostatic repulsion
The major function of fats is?
energy storage
major function of fat is
energy storage
what can fats do?
energy storage and cushioning/ insulation
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
energy-carrying biological molecule, which, when broken down, drives cellular activities. Consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of three phosphate groups. It may be more accurate to say that ATP has the potential to react with water or other molecules, rather than store energy.
Carbohydrates purpose
energy/ fuel and building materials
functions of proteins
enzymatic, storage, hormonal, motor, defense, transport, receptor, and structure
What is an example of a sulfhydryl?
ethanethiol
What is an example of a compound with hydroxyl?
ethanol
Why are unsaturated fats liquid at room temperature?
ex: vegetable oil kinks from the double bonds prevent the molecule from packing together closely enough to solidify at room temp.
thymine
found only in DNA
steriods
four interconnected rings of carbon, not soluablev
what are the two subtypes of sterioisomers?
geometric isomer and enantiomers
what are the structeral isomers of glucose?
glucose and fructose
alpha glucose
glucose where on C1 H on top, OH on bottom
beta glucose
glucose where on C1 OH on top, H on bottom
ex of monosaccharides
glucose, fructose, ribose
what is the simplist sugar?
glyceraldehyde, three carbon sugar
how many protein structures does miogloben use?
goes from primary to tertiary
pyrimidine
has one six-membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms - cytosine and tymine (only in DNA), and uracil ( only in RNA)
Saturated fatty acids bonds? State at room temp?
have no double bonds are solid at room temp
When the R group is non polar is it hydrophobic or hydrophilic?
hydrophobic
Denaturation
in proteins, a process in which a protein loses its native shape due to the disruption of weak chemical bonds and interactions, thereby becoming biologically inactive; in DNA, the separation of the two strands of the double helix. denaturation occurs under extreme (noncellular) conditions of pH, salt concentration, or temperature
enantiomers
isomers that are mirror images of each other and that differ in shape due to the presence of an asymmetric carbon
how do phospholipids differ from fats?
it only has TWO fatty acids third hydroxyl group of the glycerol is attached to a phosphate group
(Proteins) Peptide Bond
know where the peptide bond is located
deoxyribose
lacks an oxygen atom on the second carbon in the ring
lipids are overall hydro____________ however some parts may be hydro____________
lipids are overall hydrophobic however some parts may be hydrophilic
Steriods
lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings
steroids
lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings (Important group of molecules / lipids in animals)
defining trait of lipids
mix poorly if at all with water
RNA
most often single-stranded helix rather than double stranded helix(Has ribose as its sugar rather than deoxyribose (minus an oxygen from ribose))
secondary structure
most proteins have segments of their polypeptide chains repeatedly coiled or folded i patters that contribute to the proteins overall shape
Monosaccharides serve as a major source of _________ for cells and as ____________________?
nutrients, raw material for building molecules
Cis-trans Isomers
one of several compounds that have the same molecular formula and covalent bonds between atoms but differ in the spatial arrangements of their atoms owing to the inflexibility of double bonds
Enantiomer
one of two compounds that are mirror images of each other and that differ in shape due to the presence of an asymmetric carbon
enantiomers
one of two compounds that are mirror images of each other and that differ in shape due to the presence of an asymmetric carbon, your right hand won't fit into a left-handed glove "right-handed" molecule won't fit into the same space as the "left-handed" version, usually only one isomer is biologically active because only that form can bind to specific molecules in an organism
cis-trans isomers
one of two or more compounds that have the same molecular formula and covalent bonds between atoms but differ in the spatial arrangements of their atoms owing to the inflexibility of double bonds, cis=two X's on same side, trans=two X's opposite sides
storage polysaccharides
plants and animals store sugars for later use in this form
histome
protiens that hold DNA strands together
Quaternary structure
results from interactions between multiple polypeptide chains; a bunch of tertiary structures interacting together
B pleated sheet
seconday structure -two or more segments of the polypeptide chain lying side by side are connected by hydrogen bonds between parts of the two parallel segments of the polypeptide backbone
secondary protein structure
segments of proteins where the chain repeatedly coils or folds in a specific pattern form, result of hydrogen bonds getting between the amino acids, can form a helix or a pleated sheet
Phospholipids
similar to a fat molecule but only has two fatty acids attached to glycerol rather than three (Two lipid tails, two hydrocarbon tails, and a phosphate head)
Monosaccharides
simple sugars (glucose, fructose, galactose)
RNA structer
single strand, can change
RNA molecules exist as?
single strands
Carbon usually forms ___________ or ____________ covalent bonds.
single, double
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
single-strand helix shaped nucleic acid that controls protein synthesis, different types help in different ways, can be used to replicate DNA
What form are saturated fats at room temperature?
solid (ex. bacon fat/grease, butter)
Enzymes
specialized macromolecules (usually proteins) that speed up chemical reactions(Proteins that facilitate chemical reactions inside our cells)
The process of forming polymers is facilitated by enzymes, which are...
specialized macromolecules (usually proteins) that speed up chemical reactions.
Enzymes
specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions
enzymes
specialized macromolecules usually proteins that speed up chemical reactions
globular proteins
spherical proteins
globular proteins?
spherical, water-soluble proteins
storage polysaccharides
starch (plants), cellulose (plant cell walls) and glycogen (animals) - stored energy
complex carbs
starch and fiber
chitin
structural polysaccharide consisting of amino sugar monomers, found in many fungal cell walls and in the exoskeletons of all arthropods
cellulose
structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls consisting of glucose monomers joined by beta glycosidic linkages, most abundant organic compound on earth, straight and never branched, enzymes that digest starch by hydrolyzing its α linkages are unable to hydrolyze the β linkages of cellulose due to the different shapes of these two molecules
Chitin
structural polysaccharides used by insects, spiders, crustaceans and other arthropods to build their hard exoskeleton (hard, outer casings)
protein functions
structural support, storage, transport, cellular communications, movement, and defense against foreign substances
Types of Isomers
structural, cis-trans, enantiomers
nucleoside
sugar + nitrogenous base
parts of a nucleic acid
sugar - in DNA it is deoxyribose, in RNA it is ribose phosphate group- attached to the sugar nitrogen base - either a (a 6-membered ring of carbon and nitrogen) or a (a 6-membered ring fused to a 5-membered ring)
What two molecules make up the "uprights"?
sugar and phosphate
how can sugar be drawn from starch?
sugar can be drawn from starch through hydrolysis breaking the links b/w the glucose monomers
Deoxyribose
sugar in DNA
Enzymes that digest starch by hydrolyzing its alpha linkages are unable to hydrolyze..
the beta linkages of cellulose due to the different shapes of these two molecules.
glycosidic linkage
the bond formed between two monomers in a carbohydrate by dehydration synthesis (Still covalent bonds - it is 2 monomers stuck together by dehydration synthesis)
Valence
the number of covalent bonds an atom can form (equal to number of unpaired electrons in the valence shell of atom)
C-terminus
the only carboxyl group end in a polypeptide chain
Nucleoside
the portion of a nucleotide without the phosphate group
why are the strands in the double helix antiparallel
they run antiparallel
why is forming a bilayer the only stable form for phospholipids
they shield the hydrophobic regions from water by associating only with other tails
What is the compound name of sulfhydryl?
thiol
sulfhydryl group
thiol (-SH)
tertiary study
three dimensional shape stabilized by interactions between side chains of various amino acids
tertiary structure
three dimensional shape stabilized by interactions between side chains, hydrophobic interactions (as polypeptide folds into shape hydrophobic AA end up in clusters at protein core our of contact with water), disulfide bridges (reinforce protein shape)
triacylglycerol
three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule
electrostatic repulsion
three negative charged phosophates break easily and release energy
True or false: Herbivores have microbes (many different kinds) that can access the cellulose in their gut (from the plants)
true; (Herbivores have a symbiotic mutualistic relationship with the microbes in their gut -Microbes can eat all they want and release the energy for the herbivore to use -cows + termites have multiple stomachs - food needs to stay there longer for microbes to pick up on it)
disaccharide
two monosaccharides joined together by a glycosidic linkage
trans fats
unsaturated fat formed artificially during hydrogenation of oils, containing one or more trans double bond, hydrogen synthetically added to fats allowing them to solidify
trans fats
unsaturated fats converted to saturated fats by adding hydrogen, produces unsaturated fats with trans double bonds instead of cis and causes a not bent shape
Can carbonyl groups be structural isomers?
yes
Is an organism sensitive to the subtlest variations?
yes
Fatty Acid
Building Blocks of Lipids
Amino Acid
Building blocks of protein
Phospholipids structure and function
Built from a glycerol backbone as well, but a polar phosphate group replaces one of the fatty acids. The phosphate group on the opposite side of the glycerol from the fatty acids making the phospholipid polar at the phosphate end and nonpolar at the fatty acid end. This condition is called amphipathic MAJOR COMPONENT OF MEMBRANES
an acid
By donating hydrogen ions, carboxyl groups act as what?
Which bonds are created during the formation of the primary structure of a protein? A) disulfide bonds B) hydrogen bonds C) peptide bonds D) phosphodiester bonds
C
carboxyl group
Carboxylic acid or organic acid
Which bond in Figure 3.12 is farthest from a carbon? A) A B) B C) C D) D E) E
C
Enzymes
Catalysts for chemical reactions in living things
Nucleotide
nucleoside + phosphate group
Bioinformatics
the use of computer software and other tools to analyze data
What is the charge of the phosphate group when inside a chain of phosphates?
-1
What is a trans-isomer?
2H on opposite side
Rocky Mountains form
80 mya-50 mya
triacylglycerol
A lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule by a ester linkage; also called a fat or triglyceride.
Triacylglycerol
A lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule; also called a fat or triglyceride.
fat
A lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule; also called a triacylglycerol or triglyceride.
Phospholipid
A lipid made up of glycerol joined to two fatty acids and a phosphate group. The hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids act as nonpolar, hydrophobic tails, while the rest of the molecule acts as a polar, hydrophilic head. Phospholipids form bilayers that function as biological membranes.
____ is formed when an Amino Group is added
Amine
Amino Acid
An organic molecule possessing both a carboxyl and an amino group.
Amino Acid
An organic molecule possessing both a carboxyl and an amino group. Amino acids serve as the monomers of polypeptides.
Testosterone and estradiol are male and female sex hormones, respectively, in many vertebrates. In what way(s) do these molecules differ from each other? Testosterone and estradiol ________. A) are structural isomers but have the same molecular formula B) are cis-trans isomers but have the same molecular formula C) have different functional groups attached to the same carbon skeleton D) are enantiomers of the same organic molecule
C) have different functional groups attached to the same carbon skeleton
What are the major elements found in living organisms? a. C, H, N, O, P, S b. C, H, and O c. C, H, N, P d. C, O, P, S
C, H, N, O, P, S
What elements make up carbohydrates?
C, H, O
What elements make up lipids?
C, H, O
What elements make up nucleic acids?
C, H, O, N, P
Which of the following hydrocarbons has a double bond in its carbon skeleton? a. C2H2 b. C3H8 c. CH4 d. C2H6 e. C2H4
C2H4
ethane
C2H6. 2 Overlapping tetrahedrons
Molecules of all living things can be classified as:
Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids
All macromolecules have?
Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
What two things construct fats?
Constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules: fatty acids(long carbon skeleton, 16 or 18 carbon atoms in length) and glycerol(three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule)
nucleotides
Each polynucleotide is made of monomers called
Glycogen
Glucose storage polysaccharide for animals; found in the liver and muscle; extensively branched
What is a hydrocarbon? Name two. Are hydrocarbons hydrophobic or hydrophilic?
Hydrocarbons are hydrophobic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen, such as benzene, methane, petroleum and fats. They don't dissolve in water. The majority of their bonds are relativley nonpolar carbon to hydrogen linkages.
Discuss how the structure of ATP allows it to release energy
In ATP, three phosphate groups are present in series and are negatively charged, meaning they naturally repel each other. As a result, lots of energy is required to bind them (energy stored in the bonds). When one phosphate group interacts with water, hydrolysis occurs and the result is ADP an the release of energy.
Complementary base pairing
In DNA, T pairs with A; G pairs with C; RNA, U pairs with A and G pairs with C
Is CO2 an Organic Compound? Is H2O?
No.
Hydrocarbons
Organic Compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen - not prevalent in most living organisms, many of a cells organic molecules have regions consisting of only carbon and hydrogen. -major component of petroleum - undergo reactions that release large amounts of energy - hydrophobic compounds because most consist of non polar carbon-hydrogen linkages.
Carbon chains form the skeletons of most?
Organic molecules
_____ is formed when a Phosphate Group is added
Organic phosphate-found in ATP
Phosphate
PO₄²⁻
The genus Homo appears during the Ice Ages
Pleistocene
Bipedal human ancestors appear
Pliocene
Which of the following molecules is a weak base? a. R—NH2 b. R—OH c. R—COOH d. R—SH e. None of the listed responses is correct.
R—NH2 The amino group (—NH2) of R—NH2 can function as a base. It can accept a proton (H+).
Methyl Functional Group
Structure: C bonded to three H atoms; not necessarily attached to a C atom ex. 5-Methyl cytidine - component of DNA that has been modified by addition of methyl group Properties: • Addition of a methyl group to DNA or molecules bound to DNA affects expression of gene (how proteins are synthesized) • Arrangement of methyl groups in male and female sex hormones affects their shape and function
Which functional group is this? (Compound name: Thiol)
Sulfhydryl Group
Sulfhydryl (-SH)
Sulfur with a hydrogen attached Thiol Cysteine - a sulfur-containing amino acid
Peptide Bond
The covalent bond between the carboxyl group on one amino acid and the amino group on another, formed by a dehydration reaction.
What makes lipids unique from other macromolecules?
They do not form true polymers (doesn't have repeating units)
sulfhydryl group
Thiols are characterized by the presence of what functional group?
Oxidative, beginning with the Great Oxygenation Event about 2.4 billion years ago, levels of oxygen rose to about 21% today
Third atmosphere
what are the differance between bases U and T?
U- no methyl group, in RNA T- methyl group, in DNA
What is an aldehyde?
at end of carbon skeleton
lipids
any group of large biological molecules including fats, phospholipids, and steroids that mix poorly (if at all) with water, does not have a true polymer, generally not big enough to be considered macromolecules
Lipid
any of a group of large biological molecules, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids, that mix poorly, if at all, with water
basic R groups
are positively charged
disulfide bridges
covalent bonds that may further reinforce the shape of a protein
what molecules make up the rungs?
base pairs joined by hydrogen bonding (amino acids)
when the R group is positively charged is it acidic or basic?
basic
What is a ketone?
carbonyl within carbon skeleton
structural isomer
different covalent arrangements
Carbon atoms are the most versatile building blocks of the molecules used by living organisms because _____. a. carbon can combine with hydrogen to form hydrocarbons b. each carbon atom acts as an intersection point from which a molecule can branch off in up to four directions c. carbon is the central atom in urea, a molecule used by many living organisms to transport wastes from the body d. carbon is the central atom of carbon dioxide, a necessary molecule for photosynthesis e. All of the listed responses are correct
each carbon atom acts as an intersection point from which a molecule can branch off in up to four directions
Why are saturated fats solid at room temperature?
ex: animal fats their hydrocarbon chains don't have any double bonds which makes them flexible enough to pack together tightly
hydrophobic interaction
exclusion in tertiary structure of the hydrophobic nonpolar amino acid R groups because they end up in the core of the protein
saturated fatty acid
fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds, thus maximizing the number of hydrogen atoms that can attach to the carbon skeleton, solid at room temperature (ex. butter), each bend in chain represents a a carbon atom and hydrogens
amphipathic
having both a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region
Denaturation
if it starts to lose its shape or come unwound, the protein can't do its job because the shape is so important to its job Unraveling of amino acids Two things can cause proteins to denature: 1. Change in pH 2. Change in temperature
What is different about the methyl group in comparison to the rest of the functional groups?
it is nonreactive
The unifying feature of lipids is having?
little or no affinity for water
In 1810, Jons Jakob Berzelius said that organic compounds could only be formed by _______________.
living organisms
Lipids
ll share one trait: they are hydrophobic /mix poorly with water
What may structural isomers differ in?
location of double bonds
enzymes
macromolecule serving as a catalyst , chemical agent that increases the rate of reaction without being consumed by the reaction (most are proteins)
What is a drug example of an enantiomer?
methamphetamine (1 highly addictive, other active ingredient in over-counter vapor inhaler for nasal congestion)
x-ray crystallography
method used to determine the 3D shape of a protein, uses the diffraction of the x-ray beam
Can effect gene expression
methyl
Which group is not reactive?
methyl
What is the compound name of methyl group?
methylate compound
Methyl group (-CH3)
methylated compound
methyl group
methylated compound, technically NOT a functional group because it is unreactive, acts as a recognizable tag on biological molecules
Source of lactose
milk
What are enantiomers?
mirror images of each other and differ in shape due to presence of asymmetric carbon
Tertiary structure is NOT directly dependent on _____.
peptide bonds
The amino acids of a protein are linked by
peptide bonds
types of bonds for proteins
peptide bonds
What are enantiomers important in?
pharmaceutical industry b/c 2 enantiomers of drug may be equally effective
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
primary energy-transferring molecule in the cell
What are the three superimposed levels of structure a protein shares?
primary, secondary, and tertiary structure
What are the 4 levels of protein structure?
primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary
What does a phosphate group allow a molecule to have the ability to do when attached?
react with water, release energy
features of carbon that are so unique that allow it to support life
readily available and abundant, versatile, can branch up to 4 directions, small size and stable, and properties make large and complex molecules possible
example of receptor (responsible for chemical stimuli)
receptors built into the membrane of a nerve cell detect signaling molecules from other nerve cells
receptor proteins
response of cell to chemical stimuli
Single bonds allow the atoms they join to ______________ about the bond axis
rotate freely
glucose
synthesizing starch enables the plant to stockpile surplus ______
electron configuration
the key to an atoms chemical characteristics is its _______________
carbon skeleton
the chain of carbon atoms in an organic molecule
Carbon Skeleton
the chain of carbon molecules in a molecule
Functional groups
the chemical group that affect molecular function by being directly involved in chemical reactions
Functional groups
the chemical groups affect molecular function by being directly involved in chemical reactions and are important chemical groups (groups of atoms that are biologically important and attached to the carbon skeleton that give the molecule a particular quality)
functional groups
the chemical groups that affect molecular function by being directly involved in chemical reactions
Double Helix
the form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent antiparallel polynucleotide strands wound around an imaginary axis into a spiral shape
the chemical nature of a protein as a whole is determined by...why is this true
the kind and sequence of side chains, the side chains determine how the proteins interact with other proteins and cellular functions. protein function depends on its ability to recognize and bind to some other molecule
purines
the larger of the five bases; adenine and guanine
Primary Structure
the level of protein structure referring to the specific linear sequence of amino acids
Nucleotide
the monomers that make up the nucleic acid polymers
Quarternar Structure
the particular shape of a complex, aggregate protein, defined by the characteristic three-dimensional arrangement of its constituent subunits, each a polypeptide
Polysaccharides
the polymers of sugars, have storage and structural roles
monomers def
the repeating units that serve as the building blocks of a polymer
Hydrophobic behavior of lipids is based on what?
their molecular structure (don't mix w water and repel against it)
alpha and beta linkages
there are two slightly different ring structures for glucose, when glucose forms a ring, the hydroxyl group attached to the number 1 carbon is positioned either below or above the plane of the ring. These two ring forms are called alpha (α) and beta (β), in starch, all the glucose monomers are in the α configuration, the glucose monomers of cellulose are all in the β configuration, making every glucose monomer upside down
Hydrogen bonds can be separated easily because?
they are weak
Why are lipids hydrophobic?
they consist mostly of hydrocarbons, which form nonpolar covalent bonds
The sequence of bases along a DNA and mRNA polymer is ________________
unique for each gene
genes
unit of inheritance that consists of DNA
olive oil
unsaturated fat
3.5
Proteins include a diversity of structures, resulting in a wide range of functions
hydrocarbons
organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydogen
Hydrocarbons
organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen
Each cell has ___________ of different macromolecules
thousands
mRNA synthesis
transcription
Purines
(Adenine and guanine) have a double ring
Amino groups ... a. act as bases in water b. contain nitrogen atoms c. occur in proteins d. just two of the preceding answers are true e. (a), (b), and (c)
(a), (b), and (c) Proteins contain many of these N-containing groups, which take H+ from water to become ions.
Hydrolysis
(water breakage) The bond between monomers is broken by the addition of a water molecule
(Nucleic Acids) Rules of Base Pairing:
- A purine only bonds with a pyrimidine - Adenine forms 2 hydrogen bonds with Thymine - Cytosine forms 3 hydrogen bonds with guanine
(Proteins) Building Blocks
- Amino acids(20 different) - R = the variable part of amino acids - Elements (CHON)sometimes sulfur
(Lipids) Unsaturated
- At least 1 double bond between carbons - Hydrocarbon chain is bent - Usually liquid at room temperature - Bent chain prevents tight packing Ex. plant fats and fish
(Proteins) Classification of amino acids
- Based on properties of side chain
(Lipids) Steroids
- Consist of 4 fused carbon rings - There are 6 sided - one 5 sided - Attached functional groups vary (Cholesterol) - Precursor of other steroids - Component of animal cell - Contribute to arteriosclerosis
(Lipids) Building Blocks
- Glycerol - 3 Fatty Acids - Dehydration Reaction -Ester Linkage - Triglyceride - (+ 3 H2O)
(Lipids) Fats
- Glycerol + Fatty Acids - Triglycerides have 3 fatty acids - Fatty acid presents may vary - Compact energy storage - Cushions vital organs - Organs provides insulation
Phosphate group (-OPO32-)
- In nucleic and in energy molecules A phosphate double bonded to an oxygen with oxygen surrounding it - Organic phosphate group - will be seeing this often Good for storing energy - the bonds make and break fairly easilier Energy storers and part of the DNA ladder Ie: glycerol phosphate - takes part in important chemical reactions in cells (At the end of a molecule; Must have 5 bonds)
(Lipids) Phospholipids
- Major components of cell membranes - (Head) hydrophilic - (2 fatty acid chains) Make up a tail of phospholipid hydrophobic
(Carbohydrates) Polysaccharides
- Many monosaccharides covalently bonded together(a few 100 to 1000's long)
(Nucleic Acids) DNA:
- The genetic material that organisms inherit from their parents - Genes - specific regions of DNA that contain a code for the amino acid sequence for a protein - Sugar in DNA=Deoxyribose - Nitrogenous Bases- Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine -Shape of DNA is a double-helix - Sides of helic ladder are made of alternating sugar and phosphate - Sugars and phosphates held together by covalent bonds - Rungs of the ladder are nitrogenous bases - Bases Pair: A-T and C-G - Bases held together by weak hydrogen bonds
what is the Phospholipid bi-layer?
- The phosphate heads are pointing out and inside the cell because there is usually an aqueous solution inside and outside the cell They still inside the membrane so they don't have to touch the aqueous solution inside/ outside the cell
chemical groups
- hydroxyl (-OH/HO-, alcohol, ex. ethanol) - carbonyl (>C=O, ketone wi CS/ aldehyde at end CS, ex. acetone, propanal) - carboxyl (-COOH, carboxylic acid, ex. acetic acid) - amino (-NH2, amine, ex. glycine) - sulfhydryl (-SH, thiol, ex. cysteine) - phosphate (-OPO3^2-, organic phosphate, ex. glycerol phosphate) - methyl (-CH3, methylated compound, ex. 5-Methylcytosine)
What is a methyl group?
-CH3
Methyl
-CH₃
Methyl group
-CH₃ Methylated compound
The ionized or dissociated carboxyl group may be written as _____. a. -COOH b. -C=O c. -OH d. NH4+ e. -COO-
-COO-
carboxyl group elements? Compound name?
-COOH carboxylic acid or organic acid
What is a carboxyl group?
-COOH (C double bonded to O, single to OH)
carboxyl group
-COOH, acts acidic, hydrophilic
(Proteins) Denaturation
-Changing proteins natives conformation -Change shape = change in activity Ex. High temperature, Chemical Agent(Change in PH), Organic Solvent, Salt
(Carbohydrates) Disaccharides
-Dehydration reaction is to remove water to form bond between monomers Ex. Glucose + Galactose -> lactose + H2O
(Proteins) Quaternary Configuration
-Interaction of several polypeptides -Hemoglobin -Collagen - 3 to 4 polypeptide chains
What is an amino group?
-NH2
Amino group
-NH2, acts as a base, hydrophilic
What is hydroxyl?
-OH
Hydroxyl
-OH (alcohol)
phosophate group
-OPO3(2- on the O3), acts as acid, componante of ATP
Phosphate
-OPO3^2-
Phosphate group elements? Compound name?
-OPO3⁻² Organic Phosphate
Disulfide bridges
-S-S- formed where two cysteine monomers (contain -SH groups) in their r groups are brought close together by the folding of a protein
sulfhydryl group elements? Compound name?
-SH Thiol
Fatty acid
-long carbon skeleton, - carbon at one end of the skeleton is part of a carboxyl group, functional group that gives these molecules the name fatty acid - rest of the skeleton consits of hydrocarbon chain, - relatively nonpolar C-H bonds in the hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids are reason fats are hydrophobic
unsaturated fats
1 or more double bonds. Nearly every double bond is a cis double bond which creates a "kink". liquid at room temperature
What is the tertiary level structure of a protein?
1. 3D shape stabilized by interactions between side chains (Builds on the secondary level) 2. The secondary structure makes the amino acids closer together from their shapes so they can interact(starts to move and bend and fold to create a new 3D shape) 3. weak or strong interactions
What is the quaternary level structure of a protein?
1. Association of two or more polypeptides (Results from the aggression of polypeptide subunits) 2. the thicker the structure is, the more strength it has 3. Quaternary structures are more complicated
(Carbohydrates) Functions - Structural
1. Cellulose - plant cell walls 2. Chitin - polymer of amino sugar Found in exoskeletons of arthropods(Ex. Lobster, Bugs)
(Carbohydrates) Functions - Storage
1. Starch(storage carbohydrates in plants) 2. Glycogen(storage carbohydrates in animals)
Study this figure of Stanley Miller's experiment to simulate conditions thought to have existed on the early Earth. Explain the elements of this experiment, using arrows to indicate what occurs in various parts of the apparatus
1. Water mixture in the "sea" flask was heated; vapor entered the "atmosphere" flask. 2.The "atmosphere" contained a mixture of hydrogen gas (H2),methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), and water vapor. 3.Sparks were discharged to mimic lightning. 4.A condenser cooled the atmosphere, raining molecules down into the sea flask. 5.As material cycled through the apparatus, Miller periodically collected samples for analysis
what are the four types of macromolecules?
1. carbohydrate 2. lipids 3. protiens 4. nucleicacid
3 types of lipids
1. fats 2. phospholipids 3. steroids
How long was the Mesozoic era?
186 million years
tertiary protein structure
3 dimensional shape stabilized by interactions between side chains, hydrophobic regions will cluster internally maintained by van der waals interactions, formed y hydrogen bonds between polar side chains, ionic bonds between + and - side chains, and strong covalent bonds called disulfide bridge
For DNA to be balanced always must have what?
3 rings across the bond to balance and be across
how are the two ends of the polymer different (nucleotides)
3' end has a hydroxyl group on the 3' carbon and 5' end has a phosphate on a 5' carbon
How many bonds can carbon form, and what type?
4 covalent bonds
carbon's valence electrons
4 valence electrons
Carbon make up
6 protons and 6 electrons (Able to bond with 4 other atoms because of this valence electrons or it can also double bonded with some atoms)
How long was the Age of Mammals?
66 million years (Cenozoic Era)
The equation for photosynthesis, also known as carbon fixation, is ______________.
6H₂O+6CO₂→C₆H₁₂O₆+6O₂
A nutritional supplement developed for athletes is shown to contain only carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Based on these data, you may safely conclude that A) the food may contain carbohydrates, lipids, and protein. B) the food may contain carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. C) the food may contain carbohydrates, phospholipids, and protein. D) the food may contain carbohydrates and lipids, but not protein.
A
In which structure(s) illustrated in Figure 3.3 are all bonds with hydrogen polar covalent bonds? A) only A B) A and D C) A and E D) only D E) none of the structures
A
Large organic molecules are generally synthesized by polymerization of a few types of simple subunits. Which of the following is an exception to this statement? A) a steroid B) cellulose C) DNA D) an enzyme
A
On food packages, to what does the term insoluble fiber refer? A) cellulose B) polypeptides C) starch D) glycogen
A
The enzyme amylase can break glycosidic linkages between glucose monomers only if the monomers are the α form. Which of the following could amylase break down? A) starch B) cellulose C) chitin D) starch and chitin
A
The structural level of a protein least affected by a disruption in hydrogen bonding is the A) primary level. B) secondary level. C) tertiary level. D) quaternary level.
A
Which bond in Figure 3.12 is closest to the amino-terminus of the molecule? A) A B) B C) C D) D E) E
A
Which functional group can act as a base? A) amino B) phosphate C) hydroxyl D) carboxyl E) methyl
A
Which functional group shown in Figure 3.4 is characteristic of alcohols? A) A B) B C) C D) D E) E
A
Which molecule shown in Figure 3.6 can function as a base? A) A B) B C) C D) D E) E
A
Which molecule shown in Figure 3.6 contains an amino functional group, but is not an amino acid? A) A B) B C) C D) D E) E
A
Which of the following chemical equations describes a dehydration reaction? A) monosaccharide + monosaccharide disaccharide + H2O B) monosaccharide + monosaccharide + H2O disaccharide C) disaccharide monosaccharide + monosaccharide + H2O D) disaccharide + H2O monosaccharide + monosaccharide
A
Which of the following is a monomer used to build a biological polymer? A) amino acid B) disaccharide C) triglyceride D) DNA
A
Which of the following is an example of a dehydration reaction? A) the reaction of two monosaccharides, forming a disaccharide with the release of water B) the reaction of two amino acids, forming a peptide bond with the consumption of water C) the reaction of a fat with glycerol, forming fatty acids with the release of water D) the reaction of a fat, forming glycerol and fatty acids with the release of water
A
Which of the following is the smallest carbohydrate? A) lactose B) glycogen C) chitin D) cellulose E) starch
A
Which of the following is true of both starch and cellulose? A) They are both polymers of glucose. B) They are cis-trans isomers of each other. C) They can both be digested by humans. D) They are both used for energy storage in plants. E) They are both structural components of the plant cell wall.
A
Which of the following statements regarding the molecule illustrated in Figure 3.8 is true? A) It is a saturated fatty acid. B) It is an entirely nonpolar molecule. C) Molecules of this type are usually liquid at room temperature. D) It would be highly soluble in water.
A
Polymer
A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together.
Enzyme
A macromolecule serving as a catalyst, a chemical agent that changes the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.
How does a carbonyl group differ from a carboxyl group? a. A carbonyl group ionizes more readily than a carboxyl group b. A carboxyl group contains H; a carbonyl does not c. A carbonyl group contains N; a carboxyl group doesn't d. A carboxyl group contains oxygen; a carbonyl group doesn't e. A carbonyl group is polar; a carboxyl group is not polar
A carboxyl group contains H; a carbonyl does not A carbonyl group is just C=O. A carboxyl group is a carbonyl group with an OH group attached.
Fatty Acid
A carboxylic acid with a long carbon chain. Fatty acids vary in length and in the number and location of double bonds; three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule form a fat molecule, also known as a triacylglycerol or triglyceride.
methyl group
A chemical group consisting of a carbon bonded to three hydrogen atoms. The methyl group may be attached to a carbon or to a different atom.
phosphate group
A chemical group consisting of a phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms; important in energy transfer.
carbonyl group
A chemical group present in aldehydes and ketones and consisting of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom.
Dehydration Reaction
A chemical reaction in which molecules combine by removing water
dehydration reaction
A chemical reaction in which molecules combine by removing water molecules
Dehydration Reaction
A chemical reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other with the removal of a water molecule.
dehydration reaction
A chemical reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other with the removal of a water molecule. - when bond forms between two monomers, each monomer contributes part of the water molecule that is released during the reaction. One monomer provides hydroxyl group and other hydrogen. Reaction is repeated forming a polymer.
dehydrolysis
A chemical reaction that breaks bonds between molecules by adding water.
Hydrolysis
A chemical reaction that breaks bonds between two molecules by the addition of water; functions in disassembly of polymers to monomers.
Monomers
A chemical subunit that serves as a building block of a polymer.
Chitin
A chemical that provides both toughness and flexibility
α helix
A coiled region constituting one form of the secondary structure of proteins, arising from a specific pattern of hydrogen bonding between atoms of the polypeptide backbone (not the side chains).
glycosidic linkage
A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.
Cholesterol
A crucial steroid in animals, as it is a common component of animal cell membranes and is also the precursor from which other steroids are synthesized, such as sex hormones (estrogen and testosterone).
Gene
A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA (or RNA, in some viruses).
Disaccharide
A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage formed by a dehydration reaction.
Disaccharide
A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis (ex. glucose + fructose = sucrose)
Disaccharide
A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis.
saturated fatty acid
A fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds, thus maximizing the number of hydrogen atoms that can attach to the carbon skeleton.
Unsaturated Fatty Acid
A fatty acid that has one or more double bonds between carbons in the hydrocarbon tail. Such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton.
Ribose
A five-carbon sugar present in RNA
Deoxyribose
A five-carbon sugar that is a component of DNA nucleotides
Macromolecule
A giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules, usually by a dehydration reaction. Polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids are macromolecules.
Macromolecules
A giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules, usually by a dehydration reaction: a protein, carbohydrate, or nucleic acid.
fat
A large lipid molecule made from an alcohol called glycerol and three fatty acids; a triglyceride. Most fats function as energy-storage molecules.
Fat
A large lipid molecule made from an alcohol called glycerol and three fatty acids; a triglyceride. Most fats function as energy-storage molecules. Glycerol's three carbons bear a hydroxyl group.
Fat
A large lipid molecule made from glycerol and three fatty acids; a triglyceride. Most fats function as energy-storage molecules.
Cholesterol
A lipid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids.
Fatty acid
A long carbon skeleton, with usually 16-18 carbons, and at the end has a carboxyl group. The rest of the skeleton is a hydrocarbon chain. The relatively nonpolar C--H bonds in the hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids are the reason fats are hydrophobic.
Polymer
A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks (monomers) linked together.
Polymer
A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds.
Polymer
A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together by covalent bonds.
Phospholipids
A molecule that is a constituent of the inner bilayer of biological membranes, having a polar, hydrophilic head and a nonpolar, hydrophobic tail. It only has two fatty acids attached to a glycerol rather than three, as in a fat molecule. The third hydroxyl group of glycerol is joined to a phosphate group, which has a negative electrical charge in the cell.
What is this?
A monomer for protein (polypeptide)
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
A nucleic acid molecule, usually a double stranded helix, in which each polynucleotide strand consists of nucleotide monomers with a deoxyribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases
Polysaccharide
A polymer of thousands of simple sugars formed by dehydration synthesis in glycosidic linkages. Some may serves as storage material, hydrolyzes as needed to provide sugar monomers for cells. Others serves as building material for structures that protect the cell or the whole organism.
denaturation
A process in which a protein unravels, losing its specific structure and hence function; can be caused by changes in pH or salt concentration or by high temperature. Also refers to the separation of the two strands of the DNA double helix, caused by similar factors.
Adenosine is adenine (found in DNA) bonded with what?
A ribose
Gene
A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific trait
Monosaccharide
A single sugar molecule such as glucose, the most common monosaccharide and of central importance in the chemistry of life. They generally have molecular formulas that are some multiple of the unit CH20. Monosaccharides are either aldehydes or ketones. Can be recognized by its multiple hydroxyl groups.
Functional groups
A specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and involved in chemical reactions, affecting molecular functions.
Functional Groups
A specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and involved in chemical reactions.
Cholesterol
A steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids, such as many hormones.
Cholesterol
A steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids.
Starch
A storage polysaccharide in plants, consisting entirely of glucose monomers joined by glycosidic linkages.
Starch
A storage polysaccharide in plants, consisting entirely of glucose monomers joined by α glycosidic linkages.
disulfide bridges
A strong covalent bond formed when the sulfur of one cysteine monomer bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine monomer, enforces shape of protien
Disulfide Bridges
A strong covalent bond formed when the sulfur of one cysteine monomer bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine monomer.
Cellulose
A structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by β glycosidic linkages.
Chitin
A structural polysaccharide that crunches, found in many fungal cell walls and in the exoskeletons of arthropods.
Cellulose
A substance (made of sugars) that is common in the cell walls of many organisms
Cholesterol
A type of fat made by the body from saturated fat; a minor part of fat in foods.
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
A type of nucleic acid consisting of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U); usually single-stranded; functions in protein synthesis and as the genome of some viruses.
Gene
A unit of inheritance that the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programmed by
Macromolecules
A very large organic molecule composed of many smaller molecules
RNA base matching
A w/ U G w/ C
Use the figures to answer the question. Which molecule shown has a carbonyl functional group in the form of an aldehyde? A) A B) B C) C D) D
A) A
Use the figures to answer the question. Which of the functional groups shown is present in ethanol but not in ethane? A) A B) B C) C D) D
A) A
Use the figures to answer the question. Which molecules shown contain a carbonyl group? A) A and B B) B and C C) B, C, and D D) C and D
A) A and B
Which of the following molecules is polar? C3H7OH C2H5COOH A) C3H7OH and C2H5COOH are both polar molecules. B) Neither C2H5COOH or C3H7OH is polar. C) C2H5COOH is polar, but C3H7OH is not polar. D) C2H5COOH is not polar, but C3H7OH is polar.
A) C3H7OH and C2H5COOH are both polar molecules.
Which of the following statements correctly describes cis-trans isomers? A) They have variations in arrangement around a double bond. B) They have an asymmetric carbon that makes them mirror images. C) They have the same chemical properties. D) They have different molecular formulas.
A) They have variations in arrangement around a double bond.
Which action could produce a carbonyl group? A) the replacement of the -OH of a carboxyl group with hydrogen B) the addition of a thiol to a hydroxyl C) the addition of a hydroxyl to a phosphate D) the replacement of the nitrogen of an amine with oxygen
A) the replacement of the -OH of a carboxyl group with hydrogen
Which chemical group is most likely to be responsible for an organic molecule behaving as a base (see Concept 2.5)? A) hydroxyl B) carbonyl C) amino D) phosphate
C
What may be created when ATP split off by reaction with water?
ADP
What does it become when it loses a phosphate?
ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
ATP
What can store potential to react with water and use energy released for cell?
ATP
This molecule contains a functional group that has the potential to react with water releasing energy? a. Acetone b. Alcohols c. ATP or adenosine triphosphate d. Propanal
ATP or adenosine triphosphate
What is ATP's importance in the cell? a. ATP can add phosphate groups, thereby releasing energy that can be used in cellular processes. b. ATP stores the potential to react with water, thereby removing a phosphate group and releasing energy for cellular processes. c. ATP contains a long hydrocarbon tail and is important in storing energy. d. ATP stores energy in carbonyl groups. When a carbonyl group is removed, energy is released to be used in cellular processes. e. ATP is an important component of cell membranes because it is nonpolar and hydrophobic.
ATP stores the potential to react with water, thereby removing a phosphate group and releasing energy for cellular processes. ATP releases energy during a hydrolysis reaction that removes a phosphate group.
Purines
Adenine and Guanine
Purines (double rings)
Adenine and Guanine
Chargaff's Rule
Adenine and thymine percentages are the same as well as cytosine and guanine, explained model for double helix (Watson & Crick used this info to explain double helix)
thymine
Adenine pairs with
What are DNA's nitrogenous bases?
Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine
What are the RNA bases?
Adenine, Uracil, Cytosine, Guanine
What does ATP stand for?
Adenosine triphosphate
Give one example of enantiomers that vary in their pharmacological effect.
Albuterol is used to relax bronchial muscles, improving airflow in asthma patients. Only the effective R-Albuterol is marketed as the ineffective S-Albuterol form counteracts the active R form.
_____ is formed when a Hydroxyl Group is added
Alcohol
_____ is formed when a Carbonyl Group is added
Aldehyde and ketone
Which of the following polymers lacks nitrogen? A) protein B) RNA C) glycogen D) chitin
C
Which of the following groups is capable of hydrogen bonding with an oxygen atom on another functional group? a. carboxyl group b. hydroxyl group c. carbonyl group d. amino group e. All of the listed responses are correct.
All of the listed responses are correct. All of the listed functional groups are polar, and thus capable of hydrogen bonding with the oxygen of another molecule.
Which functional group is this? (Compound name: Amine)
Amino Group
Identify the functional groups. a. Amino and carboxyl are functional groups b. DNA and RNA are functional groups c. Lipids and proteins are functional groups
Amino and carboxyl are functional groups
What is the difference between an isotope and an isomer?
An isotope is an alternative form of the same element containing an equal number of protons but a different number of neutrons in its atomic nucleus, and thus some different properties. C-12, C-13 and C-14 are isotopes of the element carbon. An isomer is an alternative form of the same compound with the same formula but a different arrangement of atoms in the molecule, and thus different properties. Pentane and 2-methylbutane are structural isomers of each other
Hydrocarbon
An organic molecule consisting of only carbon and hydrogen.
Hydrocarbons
An organic molecule consisting only of carbon and hydrogen.
amino acids
An organic molecule containing a carboxyl group and an amino group; serves as the monomer of proteins.
Amino Acid
An organic molecule possessing both carboxyl and amino groups. Amino acids serve as the monomers of proteins.
Glycogen
Animals store a polysaccharide - polymer of glucose that is like amylopectin but more extensively branched. - Humans and other vertebrates store glycogen mainly in liver and muscle cells - hydrolysis of glycogen in these cells releases glucose when the demand for sugar increases
What is the primary form of energy storage that animals use?
Animals use fats (lipids) instead of carbohydrates as their main source of storing energy - Fats are 10x more efficient storage of energy (much less fast mass) - A lot more energy concentrated in fat vs carbohydrates
How are fats put together or taken apart?
Are put together by dehydration synthesis and broken down by hydrolysis
hydrophobic interactions
As a polypeptide folds into its functional conformation, amino acids with hydrophobic side chains usually end up in clusters at the core of the protein, out of contact with the water. - give protien its unique shape
hydrophobic interaction
As a polypeptide folds into its functional shape, amino acids with hydrophobic side chains end up in clusters at the core of the protein
quaternary structure
Association of multiple polypeptides, forming a functional protein
A nutritional supplement developed for athletes is shown to contain only carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. Based on these data, you may safely conclude that A) the food does not contain protein. B) the food does not contain nucleic acids. C) the food does not contain carbohydrates. D) the food does not contain lipids.
B
Approximately 32 different monomeric carbohydrate subunits are found in various natural polysaccharides. Proteins are composed of 20 different amino acids. DNA and RNA are each synthesized from four nucleotides. Which class of biological polymer has the greatest functional variety? A) polysaccharides B) proteins C) DNA D) RNA
B
Changing a single amino acid in a protein consisting of 433 amino acids would A) always alter the primary structure of the protein but never alter its tertiary structure or function. B) always alter the primary structure of the protein and sometimes alter its tertiary structure or function. C) always alter the primary and tertiary structure of the protein but never alter its function. D) sometimes alter the primary and tertiary structure of the protein but always alter its function.
B
Enzymes that break down DNA catalyze the hydrolysis of the covalent bonds that join nucleotides together. What would happen to DNA molecules treated with these enzymes? A) The two strands of the double helix would separate. B) The phosphodiester linkages of the polynucleotide backbone would be broken. C) The pyrimidines would be separated from the deoxyribose sugars. D) All bases would be separated from the deoxyribose sugars.
B
How will brief heating (to 95°C) affect macromolecular structures in aqueous solution? A) Unsaturated fatty acid tails will become saturated. B) Proteins will unfold (denature). C) Starch will hydrolyze into monomeric sugars. D) Proteins will hydrolyze into amino acids.
B
Hydrogenated vegetable oil is the primary ingredient in margarine. How does hydrogenated vegetable oil differ from nonhydrogenated vegetable oil? A) Hydrogenated vegetable oil has a lower melting point than nonhydrogenated vegetable oil. B) Hydrogenated vegetable oil is solid at room temperature, whereas nonhydrogenated vegetable oil is liquid. C) Hydrogenated vegetable oil has more kinks in its fatty acid chains than does nonhydrogenated vegetable oil. D) Hydrogenated vegetable oil contains more cis fatty acids than nonhydrogenated vegetable oil.
B
If cells are grown in a medium containing radioactive 32P, which of these molecules will be radioactively labeled? A) triacylglycerols B) nucleic acids C) fatty acids D) starch
B
If one strand of a DNA molecule has the sequence of bases 5'-ATTGCA- 3', the other complementary strand would have the sequence A) 5-'TAACGT- 3'. B) 5'-TGCAAT- 3'. C) 5'-UAACGU- 3'. D) 3'-UAACGU- 5'.
B
Polysaccharides, triacylglycerols, and proteins are similar in that they A) are synthesized from monomers by hydrolysis reactions. B) are synthesized from subunits by dehydration reactions. C) are synthesized through the formation of peptide bonds between monomers. D) are broken down into their subunits by dehydration reactions.
B
Research indicates that ibuprofen, a drug used to relieve inflammation and pain, is a mixture of two enantiomers, that is, molecules that A) have identical chemical formulas but differ in the branching of their carbon skeletons. B) are mirror images of one another. C) exist in either linear chain or ring forms. D) differ in the arrangement of atoms around their double bonds.
B
The α helix and β pleated sheet are examples of which level of protein structure? A) primary B) secondary C) tertiary D) quaternary E) primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary
B
What is the structure shown in Figure 3.10? A) fatty acid molecule B) steroid molecule C) triacylglycerol molecule D) phospholipid molecule
B
What maintains the secondary structure of a protein? A) peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids B) hydrogen bonds between the amino group of one peptide bond and the carboxyl group of another peptide bond C) disulfide bonds between the amino group of one peptide bond and the R group of another amino acid D) hydrogen bonds between the carboxyl group of one peptide bond and the R group of another amino acid
B
When two carbon atoms are joined by a double bond, how many electron pairs are shared between the two carbons? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4
B
Which molecule shown in Figure 3.5 has a carbonyl functional group in the form of an aldehyde? A) A B) B C) C D) D E) E
B
Which molecule shown in Figure 3.6 can form a covalent bond between side chains (R groups) in a polypeptide? A) A B) B C) C D) D E) E
B
Which molecules shown in Figure 3.5 contain a carbonyl group? A) A and B B) B and C C) B, C, and D D) D and E E) E and A
B
Which of the following functional groups is hydrophobic? A) amino B) methyl C) carboxyl D) hydroxyl
B
Which of the following is true of cellulose? A) It is a polymer composed of enantiomers of glucose. B) It is a primary structural component of plant cell walls. C) It is digestible by bacteria in the human gut. D) It is a storage polysaccharide for energy in plant cells. E) It is a polymer of glucose joined by α glycosidic linkages.
B
Which of the structures illustrated in Figure 3.3 contain only nonpolar single covalent bonds? A) A B) B C) B and C D) B and D E) B and E
B
Why are hydrocarbons insoluble in water? A) The majority of their bonds are polar covalent carbon-to- hydrogen linkages. B) The majority of their bonds are nonpolar covalent carbon-to- hydrogen linkages. C) They are hydrophilic. D) They exhibit considerable molecular complexity and diversity.
B
Which of the following carbon molecules does not have the bond angle of 109.5°? A) CH4 B) C2H4 C) C2H6 D) C3H8
B) C2H4
Why are hydrocarbons insoluble in water? A) The majority of their bonds are polar covalent carbon-to-hydrogen linkages. B) The majority of their bonds are nonpolar covalent carbon-to-hydrogen linkages. C) They exhibit considerable molecular complexity and diversity. D) They are less dense than water.
B) The majority of their bonds are nonpolar covalent carbon-to-hydrogen linkages.
Each bond in carbon dioxide represents ________. O = C = O A) one resonating electron B) a pair of shared electrons C) two pairs of shared electrons D) a pair of protons
B) a pair of shared electrons
Research indicates that ibuprofen, a drug used to relieve inflammation and pain, is a mixture of two enantiomers; that is, molecules that ________. A) have identical chemical formulas but differ in the branching of their carbon skeletons B) are mirror images of each other C) differ in the location of their double bonds D) differ in the arrangement of atoms around their double bonds
B) are mirror images of each other
Which two functional groups are always found in amino acids? A) carbonyl and amino groups B) carboxyl and amino groups C) amino and sulfhydryl groups D) hydroxyl and carboxyl groups
B) carboxyl and amino groups
Miller's classic experiment demonstrated that a discharge of sparks through a mixture of gases could result in the formation of a large variety of organic compounds. Miller did not use ________ as one of the gases in his experiment. A) methane B) oxygen C) water D) ammonia
B) oxygen
A compound contains hydroxyl groups as its predominant functional group. Therefore, this compound ________. A) lacks an asymmetric carbon and is probably a fat or lipid B) should dissolve in water C) should dissolve in a nonpolar solvent D) will not form hydrogen bonds with water
B) should dissolve in water
Differences among organisms are caused by differences in the ________. A) elemental composition from organism to organism B) types and relative amounts of organic molecules synthesized by each organism C) sizes of the organic molecules in each organism D) types of inorganic compounds present in each organism
B) types and relative amounts of organic molecules synthesized by each organism
Nucleotides
Basic units of DNA molecule, composed of a sugar, a phosphate, and one of 4 DNA bases
why is carbon able to form large, complex, and diverse molecules?
Bc it has 4 valence e- which means it can form up to 4 covalent bonds. These can be single, double, or triple bonds. Due to its bonds, it can form large molecules.
Carbohydrates
Broken down to glucose to provide energy.
How nucleotides are linked together
By phosphodiester bonds between 3' hydroxy group of sugar and 5' phosphate group of sugar in the next nucleotide polymerization of nucleotide triphosphates lets off a pyrophosphate in the process, which is high energy and favored
A carbon atom is most likely to form which of the following bonds with other atoms? A) ionic bonds B) hydrogen bonds C) covalent bonds D) covalent bonds and hydrogen bonds
C
A carbon skeleton is covalently bonded to both an amino group and a carboxyl group. When placed in water, it A) will function only as an acid because of the carboxyl group. B) will function only as a base because of the amino group. C) will function as both an acid and a base. D) will function as neither an acid nor a base.
C
A molecule with the chemical formula C6H12O6 is probably a A) hydrocarbon. B) lipid. C) monosaccharide D) glycerol.
C
A nucleotide is composed of A) a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group. B) a nitrogenous base and a pentose sugar. C) a nitrogenous base, a phosphate group, and a pentose sugar. D) a nitrogenous base, a phosphate group, a pentose sugar, and an amino acid.
C
A scientist suspects that food in an ecosystem may have been contaminated by radioactive nitrogen over a period of several months. Which of the following should be isolated from mammals living in the ecosystem and examined for radioactivity in order to test the hypothesis? A) glycogen B) DNA C) hair D) fat
C
Amino acids are acids because they always possess which functional group? A) amino B) carbonyl C) carboxyl D) phosphate E) hydroxyl
C
At which bond in Figure 3.12 would water need to be added to achieve hydrolysis of the dipeptide, back to its component amino acids? A) A B) B C) C D) D E) E
C
Humans can digest starch but not cellulose because A) the monomer of starch is glucose, whereas the monomer of cellulose is glucose modified by the addition of a nitrogen-containing group. B) humans have enzymes that can hydrolyze the β glycosidic linkages of starch but not the α glycosidic linkages of cellulose. C) humans have enzymes that can hydrolyze the α glycosidic linkages of starch but not the β glycosidic linkages of cellulose. D) humans harbor starch-digesting bacteria in the digestive tract, but not cellulose-digesting bacteria.
C
If cells are grown in a medium containing radioactive 35S, which of these molecules will be radioactively labeled? A) phospholipids B) nucleic acids C) proteins D) starch
C
Interactions between the side chains (R groups) in a polypeptide are most important in stabilizing which of the following? A) primary structure B) secondary structure C) tertiary structure D) quaternary structure
C
Lactase is an enzyme composed of a single polypeptide that hydrolyzes the disaccharide lactose to produce monosaccharides. The optimal pH for lactase activity is 6. Transfer of lactase to pH 5 results in a substantial decrease in enzyme activity, likely due to the disruption of A) only the primary structure of the enzyme. B) the primary and secondary structure of the enzyme. C) the secondary and tertiary structure of the enzyme. D) the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure of the enzyme.
C
Testosterone and estradiol are male and female sex hormones, respectively, in many vertebrates. How do these molecules differ from each other? A) Testosterone and estradiol are structural isomers but have the same molecular formula. B) Testosterone and estradiol are cis-trans isomers but have the same molecular formula. C) Testosterone and estradiol have different functional groups attached to the same carbon skeleton. D) Testosterone and estradiol are enantiomers of the same organic molecule.
C
The sequence 5'- GAACGA'3'; may be found in which of the following? A) DNA only B) RNA only C) either DNA or RNA D) neither DNA nor RNA
C
When carbon forms single covalent bonds with four other atoms, the atoms joined to the carbon form a A) sphere. B) cube. C) tetrahedron. D) line. E) plane.
C
Which bond in Figure 3.12 is a peptide bond? A) A B) B C) C D) D E) E
C
(Functional Groups) Carboxyl
Polar - acts as an acid
Which of the following statements concerning saturated fats is true? A) They are more common in plants than in animals. B) They have multiple double bonds in the carbon chains of their fatty acids. C) They are generally solid at room temperature. D) They contain fewer hydrogen atoms than unsaturated fats having the same number of carbon atoms.
C
Which of the following statements regarding saturated fatty acids is true? A) They are the predominant fatty acid in corn oil. B) They have double bonds between the carbon atoms of the fatty acids. C) They are the principal molecules in lard and butter. D) They are usually liquid at room temperature. E) They are usually produced by plants.
C
Which of the following statements regarding the molecule illustrated in Figure 3.9 is true? A) It is a saturated fatty acid. B) It is an entirely nonpolar molecule. C) Molecules of this type are usually liquid at room temperature. D) It is highly soluble in water.
C
Which of the following will result in changing the orientation of bonds between carbon and other atoms from a tetrahedral configuration to a planar configuration? A) the presence of single covalent bonds with oxygen atoms B) the presence of single covalent bonds with nitrogen atoms C) the presence of double covalent bonds between the carbon atom and other atoms D) the presence of polar covalent bonds between carbon and other atoms
C
Which of the structures illustrated in Figure 3.3 is an impossible covalently bonded molecule? A) A B) B C) C D) D E) E
C
Which type of interaction stabilizes the α helix and the β pleated sheet structures of proteins? A) hydrophobic interactions B) ionic bonds C) hydrogen bonds D) peptide bonds
C
Use the figures to answer the question. Which molecule shown can increase the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution and is therefore an organic acid? A) A B) B C) C D) D
C) C
Use the figures to answer the question. Which molecule shown contains a carboxyl group? A) A B) B C) C D) D Answer: C
C) C
Use the figures to answer the question. Which molecule(s) shown is (are) ionized in a cell? A) A B) B and D C) C and D D) D
C) C and D
Visualize the structural formula of each of the following hydrocarbons. Which hydrocarbon has a double bond in its carbon skeleton? A) C3H8 B) C2H6 C) C2H4 D) C2H2
C) C2H4
The element present in all organic molecules is ________. A) hydrogen B) oxygen C) carbon D) nitrogen
C) carbon
Amino acids are acids because they always possess ________ as the functional group? A) amino B) carbonyl C) carboxyl D) phosphate
C) carboxyl
What were some of the organic compounds Miller synthesized?
CH2O, HCN, amino acids, hydrocarbon chains
Which of the following is an organic molecule? a. NaCl b. Ne c. CH4 d. H2O e. O2
CH4 Compounds containing carbon are said to be organic.
methane
CH4, when a carbon atom has four single bonds to other atoms the molecule is tetrahedral, bond angles in methane are 109.5 degrees
Six major elements of life:
CHNOSP
How does ran move around the cell?
Can freely move around the cell - inside and outside the nucleus
Critically important molecules of all living things fall into four main classes which are?
Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids
Living organisms are made up of chemicals based mostly on which element?
Carbon
Water is the universal medium of life on Earth, but living organisms are made up of chemicals based mostly on what elements? a. Oxygen b. Hydrogen c. Carbon d. Phosphorous
Carbon
What are common examples of hydrocarbons?
Coal, oils, gasoline, and fossil fuels
Organic molecules may have formed abiotically on Earth, the first step for the formation of life.
Conclusion of the Urey-Miller Experiment
Dehydration Reaction
Condensation reaction where molecules are covalently bonded by loss of a water molecule.
A chemist wishes to make an organic molecule less acidic. Which of the following functional groups should be added to the molecule in order to do so? A) carboxyl B) sulfhydryl C) hydroxyl D) amino E) phosphate
D
A disulfide bridge is an example of which type of bond? A) ionic bond between R groups B) hydrophobic interaction between R groups C) hydrogen bond between R groups D) covalent bond between R groups
D
A food company wishes to convert corn oil into a spread that is solid at room temperature. One way to accomplish this goal would be to A) remove hydrogens, increasing the number of double bonds in the oil molecules. B) remove hydrogens, decreasing the number of double bonds in the oil molecules. C) add hydrogens, increasing the number of double bonds in the oil molecules. D) add hydrogens, decreasing the number of double bonds in the oil molecules.
D
A nutritional supplement developed for athletes is shown to contain only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Based on these data, you may safely conclude that A) the food may contain carbohydrates and protein. B) the food may contain carbohydrates and nucleic acids. C) the food may contain lipids and protein. D) the food may contain carbohydrates and lipids, but not protein.
D
How many peptide bonds are present in a polypeptide that contains 45 amino acids? A) 90 B) 46 C) 45 D) 44
D
If 14C-labeled uracil is added to the growth medium of cells, what macromolecules will be labeled? A) polysaccharides B) proteins C) DNA D) RNA E) both DNA and RNA
D
Lactose, a sugar in milk, is composed of one glucose molecule joined by a glycosidic linkage to one galactose molecule. How is lactose classified? A) as a pentose B) as a hexose C) as a monosaccharide D) as a disaccharide E) as a polysaccharide
D
The biochemical reaction that joins two amino acids to form a dipeptide is accompanied by A) the addition of a water molecule. B) the release of a carbon dioxide molecule. C) the addition of a nitrogen atom. D) the release of a water molecule.
D
The difference between the sugar in DNA and the sugar in RNA is that the sugar in DNA A) is a six-carbon sugar and the sugar in RNA is a five-carbon sugar. B) is a five-carbon sugar and the sugar in RNA is a six-carbon sugar. C) is in the α configuration and the sugar in RNA is in the β configuration. D) contains one less oxygen atom than the sugar in RNA.
D
The molecule shown in Figure 3.9 is a(n) A) polysaccharide. B) saturated fatty acid. C) triacylglycerol. D) unsaturated fatty acid.
D
The primary functional groups in a common macromolecule are hydroxyl groups. Which of the following statements regarding this macromolecule is true? A) It lacks an asymmetric carbon, and it is probably a fat or lipid. B) It will not dissolve in water. C) It will dissolve in a nonpolar solvent. D) It will form hydrogen bonds with water.
D
Which bonds maintain the primary structure of a protein? A) disulfide bonds B) hydrogen bonds C) ionic bonds D) peptide bonds
D
Which molecule shown in Figure 3.5 can increase the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution and is therefore an organic acid? A) A B) B C) C D) D E) E
D
Which of the following chemical equations describes a hydrolysis reaction? A) monosaccharide + monosaccharide disaccharide + H2O B) monosaccharide + monosaccharide + H2O disaccharide C) disaccharide monosaccharide + monosaccharide + H2O D) disaccharide + H2O monosaccharide + monosaccharide
D
Which of the following is an example of a hydrolysis reaction? A) the reaction of two monosaccharides, forming a disaccharide with the release of water B) the synthesis of two amino acids, forming a peptide bond with the release of water C) the reaction of a fat with glycerol, forming fatty acids with the release of water D) the reaction of a fat, forming glycerol and fatty acids with the consumption of water
D
Which of the following large biological molecules will self-assemble into a bilayer when mixed with water? A) proteins B) triacylglycerols C) cellulose D) phospholipids
D
Which of the following polymers contains nitrogen? A) starch B) glycogen C) cellulose D) chitin
D
Which of the following statements regarding lipids is true? A) They generally contain nitrogen. B) They are made from glycerol and amino acids. C) A gram of lipid stores less energy than a gram of carbohydrate. D) They are insoluble in water.
D
Which of the groups in Figure 3.4 is a basic functional group that can accept H+ and become positively charged? A) A B) B C) C D) D E) E
D
Which of the structures illustrated in Figure 3.3 contain(s) a carbonyl functional group? A) A B) C and D C) C D) D E) C and E
D
Which two functional groups are always found in amino acids? A) hydroxyl and carboxyl B) carbonyl and amino C) ketone and amino D) carboxyl and amino
D
Which two functional groups shown in Figure 3.4 are present in all amino acids? A) A and B B) A and D C) B and D D) C and D E) C and E
D
Which of the following statements is true? A) ADP contains more energy than ATP. B) Following hydrolysis, ATP can give off one phosphate, whereas ADP cannot. C) ADP can have two positive charges. D) ATP can have four negative charges.
D) ATP can have four negative charges.
Use the figures to answer the question. Which molecule shown above contains a functional group that is a part of the molecule known as the "energy currency of living organisms"? A) A B) B C) C D) D
D) D
Use the figures to answer the question. Which of the functional groups shown helps stabilize proteins by forming covalent cross-links within or between protein molecules? A) A B) B C) C D) D
D) D
Why is carbon so important in biology? A) It is a common element on Earth. B) It has very little electronegativity, making it a good electron donor. C) It bonds to only a few other elements. D) It can form a variety of carbon skeletons and host functional groups.
D) It can form a variety of carbon skeletons and host functional groups.
Which of the following is true of carbon? A) It forms only polar molecules. B) It can form a maximum of three covalent bonds with other elements. C) It is highly electronegative. D) It can form both polar and nonpolar bonds.
D) It can form both polar and nonpolar bonds.
Use the following figure to answer the question. The two molecules shown in the figure are best described as ________. A) enantiomers B) radioactive isotopes C) structural isomers D) cis-trans isomers
D) cis-trans isomers
Organic molecules with only hydrogens and five carbon atoms cannot ________. A) have a branching carbon skeleton B) have different combinations of double bonds between carbon atoms C) have different positions of double bonds between carbon atoms D) form enantiomers
D) form enantiomers
A carbon atom has 6 electrons however, its valency is 4. This is because the carbon atom ________. A) donates its 2 electrons to another atom B) shares its 2 electrons and bonds with another atom C) has 4 electrons in its first shell and 2 in the second shell D) has only 2 electrons in its first shell and 4 in the second shell
D) has only 2 electrons in its first shell and 4 in the second shell
The experimental approach taken in current biological investigations presumes that ________. A) simple organic compounds can be synthesized in the laboratory from inorganic precursors, but complex organic compounds like carbohydrates and proteins can be synthesized only by living organisms B) a life force ultimately controls the activities of living organisms, and this life force cannot be studied by physical or chemical methods C) living organisms are composed of the same elements present in nonliving things, plus a few special trace elements found only in living organisms or their products D) living organisms can be understood in terms of the same physical and chemical laws that can be used to explain all natural phenomena
D) living organisms can be understood in terms of the same physical and chemical laws that can be used to explain all natural phenomena
types of nucleic acids
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic) -the genetic material organisms inherit from their parents that resides in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell; directs its own replication and controls RNA and protein synthesis = gene expression RNA (Ribonucleic) - messenger RNA (mRNA) produced by DNA in the nucleus carries the information out to the cytoplasm and interacts with the ribosomes (protein- synthesizing machinery) to direct the synthesis of a polypeptide
(Nucleic Acids) Central Dogma of Biology
DNA -> RNA -> Protein - DNA contains the instructions for making a protein - The instructions are copied by RNA - The instructions are used to make a protein
reproduce
DNA and RNA enable living things to _____ their complex components from one generation to the next
DNA replication
DNA unzips into two parts and splits with the cell. In it's new home each side of the DNA strand attack to matching nucleotides to create 2 exact copies.
flow fo genetic info
DNA--> RNA--> protein
What are protein functions?
Defense, storage, transport, cellular communication, movement, and structural support
The Age of Amphibians and the Age of Fish
Devonian Period
Which of the following molecules lacks amino acids? A) hemoglobin B) insulin C) antibodies D) spider silk E) cholesterol
E
What is the reason carbon atoms are the most versatile building blocks of the molecules used by living organisms? a. Each carbon atom acts as an intersection point from which a molecule can branch off in up to four directions. b. Carbon can combine with hydrogen to form hydrocarbons. c. Carbon is the central atom in urea, a molecule used by many living organisms to transport wastes from the body. d. Carbon is the central atom of carbon dioxide, a necessary molecule for photosynthesis. e. All of the listed responses are correct.
Each carbon atom acts as an intersection point from which a molecule can branch off in up to four directions. Carbon has the potential to form molecules that can be straight, branched, or ringed. Along with the ability to form double and triple bonds, this ability permits the formation of an almost infinite number of different molecules.
Four different atoms or groups attached to an asymmetric carbon; usually only one is biologically active.
Enantiomers
mirror images
Enantiomers are molecules that are _____.
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Energy-carrying biological molecule, which, when broken down, drives cellular activities
Lipids
Energy-rich organic compounds, such as fats, oils, and waxes, that are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Lipids
Energy-rich organic compounds, such as fats, oils, and waxes, that mainly consist of hydrocarbon regions. They mix poorly with water because of their hydrophobic behavior.
Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, Holocene
Epochs
Put Eggs On My Plate, Please Honey
Epochs
Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic
Eras
Press the pale button to message the center
Eras
What was collected in the sample for chemical analysis? What was concluded from the results of this experiment?
From the samples collected for chemical analysis, Miller identified a variety of organic molecules that are common in organisms. These included simple compounds, such as formaldehyde (CH2O) and hydrogen cyanide (HCN), and more complex molecules, such as amino acids and long chains of carbon and hydrogen known as hydrocarbons. Miller concluded that organic molecules, a first step in the origin of life, may have been synthesized abiotically on the early Earth
Hydroxyl, Carbonyl, Carboxyl, Amino, Sulfhydryl, Phosphate, Methyl
Functional groups
Define functional group.
Functional groups affect molecular function by being directly involved in chemical reactions.
Glucose
Glucose is the most abundant monosaccharide and is a six-carbon sugar with the chemical formula C-6, H-12, O-6. Glucose comes in two forms: alpha glucose and beta glucose, which differ simply by a reversal of the H and OH of the first carbon.
cytosine
Guanine pairs with
Amino
H-N-H
What is phosphoric acid
H3PO4
secondary structure of protein characteristics
HAS folds and coils dur to H-BONDING
What is the inorganic phosphate ion?
HOPO3 -2 = Pi
What is DNA made up of?
Has adenine, cysteine, guanine, and thymine
What is RNA made up of?
Has adenine, cytosine and guanine (Thymine is replaced by uracil for its nitrogenous base Thymine is a single circle on graph, not a double graph)
What is hemoglobin and what is made up of?
Hemoglobin is the protein that binds oxygen in your red blood cells (see image) - Made up of 4 polypeptides- very complicated 2 helices 2 beta sheets Red part is the heme of the hemoglobin (the iron pigment)
Which functional group affects the shape of human sex hormones that result is different physical characteristics in the human species. a. Amino group b. Hydroxyl group c. Carbonyl group d. Methyl group
Methyl group
_____ is formed when a Methyl Group is added
Methylated compound
In cellulose, when hydroxyl groups hydrogen bond to hydroxyl groups of other cellulose molecules, they are grouped into what?
Microfibrils, which form strong building materials for plants
Sulfhydryl group
Molecules termed thiols are characterized by this group, which resembles a hydroxyl group. These groups interact to help stabilize the structure of many proteins.
The simplest carbohydrates are?
Monosaccharides or simple sugars
What is the ionized form of amino group?
NH3+
primary structure of protein characteristics and what it dictates
NO FOlds! linear chain of amino acids dictates second and tertiary bc of R groups in a.a
What is each nucleotide made up of?
Nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and one or more phosphate groups
What do amino groups consist of?
Nitrogens
Is one monomer of an amino acid a protein?
No
Can propane (C3H8) form isomers?
No. There is not enough diversity in the atoms. It can form structural isomers because there is only one way for three carbons to attach to each other (in a line). There are no double bonds, so geometric isomers are not possible. Each carbon has at least two hydrogens attached to it so the molecule is symmetrical and cannot have enantiometric isomers.
Which of these is a thiol? a. —OH b. —NH2 c. —SH d. —COH e. None of the listed responses is correct.
None of the listed responses is correct. A thiol is a molecule containing a sulfhydryl functional group.
3.6
Nucleic acids store, transmit, and help express hereditary information
(Nucleic Acids) Monomers
Nucleotides
Carboxyl
O=C-OH
polar amino groups?
OH or NH2
hydroxyl group elements? Compound name?
OH- alcohol (specific name ends in -ol usually)
β Pleated Sheet
One form of the secondary structure of proteins in which the polypeptide chain folds back and forth. Two regions of the chain lie parallel to each other and are held together by hydrogen bonds between atoms ofthe polypeptide backbone (not the side chains).
Enantiomers
One of two compounds that are mirror images of each other
Enantiomer
One of two compounds that are mirror images of each other and that differ in shape due to the presence of an asymmetric carbon.
Structural Isomer
One of two or more compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms.
tertiary structure
Overall shape of a polypeptide resulting from interactions between the side chains (R groups) of the various amino acids.
In general, the presence of what elements make a molecule polar?
Oxygen and nitrogen
What is the phosphate group symbolized in an organic compound?
P
The dominant forms of life are mammals, birds, and pollinating insects.
Paleocene
DNA sugar
Pentose with H off of the 2 carbon
RNA sugar
Pentose with OH off of the 2 carbon
Amino acids are linked by what?
Peptide bonds
Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous
Periods
Camels Often Sit Down Carefully, Perhaps Their Joints Creak
Periods
Which functional group is this? (Compound name: Organic phosphate)
Phosphate Group
Sulfhydryl group
Polar cysteine
(Functional Groups) Amino Group
Polar - acts as a base
Which of the following molecules has a carboxyl functional group? a. R—NH2 b. R—OPO3-2 c. R—COOH d. R—SH e. R—COH
R—COOH The molecule R—COOH contains the carboxyl functional group (—COOH). The presence of this group would make the molecule a weak acid.
What are the three types of carbon skeleton?
Straight, branched, rings
differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms
Structural isomers
Cellulose
Structural polysaccharide consisting of glucose monomers that reinforces plant-cell walls. Like starch cellulose is a polymer of glucose with 1-4 glycosidic linkages, but the ring form is in the beta configuration (starch is in alpha).
Phosphate Functional Group
Structure: (-OPO32-): P atom bonded to four O atoms; one O bonded to the C skeleton; two Os carry negative charges ex. glycerol phosphate - takes part in many important chemical reactions in cells and provides backbone for phospholipids (most prevalent molecules in cell) Properties: • Contributes negative charge to molecule of which it is a part (-2 when at end of molecule; -1 when located internally in chain of phosphates) • Has potential to react with water, releasing energy (part of ATP)
Carbonyl Functional Group
Structure: (>CO): C atom joined to an O atom by a double bond ex. Ketones: if carbonyl group is within a carbon skeleton(acetone) Aldehydes: if carbonyl group is at end of carbonskeleton (propanal) Properties: •Ketones and aldehydes may be structural isomers of one another with different properties (like acetone and propanal). •Both groups are found in sugars, giving rise to 2 major groups of sugars: - Aldoses: contain an aldehyde - Ketoses: contain a ketone
What is a common disaccharide?
Table sugar (sucrose) - disaccharide that is built by attaching two monosaccharide together by dehydration synthesis Still a carbohydrate
What is dehydration synthesis?
Taking out a water and putting together the two amino acids
What chemical change occurs to ATP when it reacts with water and releases energy?
The ATP molecule loses a phosphate, becoming an ADP.
Valence
The bonding capacity of a given atom; the number of covalent bonds an atom can form, which usually equals the number of unpaired electrons in its outermost (valence) shell.
Nucleotide
The building block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group.
Carbon skeleton
The chain of carbon atoms that forms the structural backbone of an organic molecule.
Which of the following examples best describes a unique functional property of the carboxyl group? a. Its compounds may be structural isomers with different properties. b. It is polar as a result of the electronegative oxygen atom drawing electrons toward it. c. Two carboxyl groups can bond covalently to help stabilize protein structure. d. The covalent bond between oxygen and hydrogen is so polar that hydrogen ions tend to dissociate from oxygen reversibly. e. It acts as a base.
The covalent bond between oxygen and hydrogen is so polar that hydrogen ions tend to dissociate from oxygen reversibly. This is a property of the carboxyl group.
Phosphate group
The electronegative oxygens of this functional group draw electrons, and as a result the group acts as an acid, losing hydrogen ions to the surrounding solution. This dissociation leaves the group with a negative charge. This group is important in ATP and the transfer of energy between organic molecules.
An atom's electron configuration determines what which is the source of carbon's versatility?
The kinds and number of bonds the atom will form with other atoms
Primary Structure
The level of protein structure referring to the specific linear sequence of amino acids.
Ester linkage
The linkage formed between the glycerol molecule and the fatty acids in a fat; formed through dehydration synthesis; creates triacylglycerol or triglyceride
Monosaccharides are classified by what?
The number of carbons in the carbon skeleton and the placement of the carbonyl group (C=O)
Monosaccharide
The simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides. Also known as simple sugars, monosaccharides have molecular formulas that are generally some multiple of CH2O.
Pyrimidines
The single circles or rings of an atom Uracil, thymine, cytosine (memorize diagram to understand this)
Amino group
The slightly electronegative nitrogen atom in this group tends to pick up hydrogen ions from the surrounding solution, and thus this functional group acts as a base. Because of the added hydrogen ion, this group usually has a +1 charge in the cell. This group is characteristic of organic molecules called amines. Click on this functional group.
Genomics
The study of whole sets of genes and their interactions within a species, as well as genome comparisons between species
Genomics
The study of whole sets of genes and their interactions within a species, as well as genome comparisons between species.
Monomer
The subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer.
Deoxyribose
The sugar component of DNA nucleotides, having one fewer hydroxyl group than ribose, the sugar component of RNA nucleotides.
Proteomics
The systematic study of the full protein sets (proteomes) encoded by genomes.
Tertiary Structure
The third level of protein structure; the overall, three-dimensional shape of a polypeptide due to interactions of the R groups of the amino acids making up the chain.
structural isomers
These molecules are _____.
geometric isomers
These molecules differ in how their atoms are arranged about a double bond.
hydroxyl group
This functional group is polar because the electronegative oxygen has a strong attraction for electrons. Water is attracted to this group, and therefore molecules that have this group (such as sugars) tend to dissolve in water. Alcohols are characterized by this functional group. Click on the functional group described here.
not isomers
This pair of molecules are _____. (hint: they have different molecular formulas)
Adenine (A) is always paired with
Thymine (T)
Why do scientists use x-ray crystallography?
To determine 3-D protein structure based on diffractions of an X-ray beam by atoms of thee crystalized molecule
hydronated fats
Unsaturated fats that are synthetically converted to saturated fats by adding hydrogen, allowing them to solidify (ex. crisco - vegetable fat)
D
Which of these functional groups is characteristic of alcohol?
E
Which of these groups is characteristic of thiols?
B
Which of these groups plays a major role in energy transfer?
C
Which of these is a carbonyl group?
Protein
a biologically functional molecule consisting of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific three-dimensional structure
The carbon atom is tetravalent, which means that __________. a. carbon's first electron shell holds four electrons b. carbon readily forms ionic bonds c. a carbon atom can complete its valence shell by forming four covalent bonds d. carbon has a total of four electrons e. the bond angle between each bond is 90°, forming an arrangement like the points on a compass
a carbon atom can complete its valence shell by forming four covalent bonds With four valence electrons, carbon usually shares its four electrons in covalent bonds to complete its outer shell.
Fatty Acid
a carboxylic acid with a long carbon chain. fatty acids vary in length and in the number and location of double bonds; three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule form a fat molecule, also known as a triacylglycerol or triglyceride
Catalyst
a chemical agent that selectively increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction
Organic Compound
a chemical compound containing carbon
organic compound
a chemical compound containing carbon, carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large complex molecules, HNOPS are elements in these molecules but carbon accounts for the enormous variety of biological molecules (almost all organic compounds associated with life contain hydrogen atoms in addition to carbon atoms)
Methyl Group
a chemical group consisting of a carbon bonded to three hydrogen atoms. the methyl group may be attached to a carbon or to a different atom
amino group
a chemical group consisting of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms. Nh3+
Amino Group
a chemical group consisting of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms; can act as a base in solution, accepting a hydrogen ion and acquiring a charge of 1+
Sulfhydryl Group
a chemical group consisting of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom
Hydroxyl Group
a chemical group consisting of an oxygen atom joined to a hydrogen atom. molecules possessing this group are soluble in water and are called alcohols
Carbonyl Group
a chemical group present in aldehydes and ketones and consisting of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom
Carboxyl Group
a chemical group present in organic acids and consisting of a single carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom and also bonded to a hydroxyl group
Suppose you had an organic molecule such as cysteine and you chem. removed the NH2 group and replaced it w/ COOH. How would this change the chem. properties of the molecules?
a chemical group that can act like a base by picking up the H+ has been replaced by a group that can act like an acid. This will increase the acidic properties of the molecule and change the shape; therefore, probably changing the molecules that it can interact with
Dehydration Reaction
a chemical reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other with the removal of a water molecule
Hydrolysis
a chemical reaction that breaks bonds between two molecules by the addition of water; functions in disassembly of polymers to monomers
Alpha (α) Helix
a coiled region constituting one form of the secondary structure of proteins, arising from a specific pattern of hydrogen bonding between atoms of the polypeptide backbone (not the side chains)
5-Methyl Cytosine
a component of DNA that has been modified by addition of a methyl group
organic compound
a compound containing carbon
organic compound
a compound containing carbon (and usually hydrogen) that is related to life and living material
Organic compound
a compound containing carbon; almost all of them that are associated w/ life contain hydrogen atoms in addition to carbon atoms(Carbon-based compounds or life forms; A molecule that has a basic skeleton of carbon with other hydrogen atoms connected)
glycosidic linkage
a covalent bond formed between 2 monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction
glycosidic linkage
a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction
Cholesterol
a crucial steriod in animals, forms an essential component of the cell membrane
alpha helix
a delicate coil formed in secondary structure held by hydrogen bonds with every fourth amino acid
a helix
a delicate coil held together by hydrogen bonding between every fourth amino acid
Disaccharide
a double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage formed by a dehydration reaction
Saturated Fatty Acid
a fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds, thus maximizing the number of hydrogen atoms that can attach to the carbon skeleton
Unsaturated Fatty Acid
a fatty acid that has one or more double bonds between carbons in the hydrocarbon tail. such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton
unsaturated fatty acid
a fatty acid whose hydrocarbon chain contains one or more double bonds
Amino Group
a functional group composed of nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms and to the carbon skeleton. Can act as a base in solution, accepting a hydrogen ion and acquiring a charge of +1
Hydroxyl Group
a functional group consisting of a hydrogen atom bonded to an oxygen atom by a polar covalent bond, which in turn is bonded to the carbon skeleton of a molecule; molecules possessing this group are water soluble and called alcohols
Phosphate Group
a functional group consisting of a phosphorus atom covalently bonded to four oxygen atoms and is important in energy transfer
Sulfhydryl Group
a functional group consisting of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom
Carbonyl Group
a functional group present in aldehydes and ketones consisting of an oxygen atom double bonded to a carbon atom
Carboxyl Group
a functional group present in organic acids consisting of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen and also bonded to a hydroxyl group
Fat
a lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule; also called a triacylglycerol or triglyceride
Phospholipid
a lipid made up of a glyerol joined to two fatty acids and a phosphate group. the hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids act as nonpolar, hydrophobic tails, while the rest of the molecule acts as a polar, hydrophilic head. phospholipids form bilayers that function as biological membranes
Protein Domains
amino acid sequences that are used repeatedly in the same protein that are found in different proteins, can bond together
denatured protein
a protein whose structure has been changed by changes in pH, temp, or other disturbances
Alpha helices and beta pleated sheets are characteristic of
a protein's secondary structure.
The amino acid sequence of each polypeptide leads to?
a protein's three-dimensional structure due to interactions with water and polar/nonpolar side chains
Primary structure
a protein's unique/linear sequence of amino acids (can't function as a protein)
amino acids
a simple organic compound containing both a carboxyl (—COOH) and an amino (—NH2) group.
transfer RNA (tRNA)
a special type of RNA that brings amino acids to the ribosomes
messenger RNA (mRNA)
a special type of RNA that interacts with the cell's protein-making organelles to direct production of a polypeptide
Functional Group
a specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and involved in chemical reactions
functional groups
a specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and involved in chemical reactions, all hydrophilic except for sulfhydryl,
Cholesterol
a steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids, such as many hormones
Starch
a storage polysaccharide in plants, consisting entirely of glucose monomers joined by α glycosidic linkages
Disulfide Bridge
a strong covalent bond formed when the sulfur of one cysteine monomer bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine monomer
Cellulose
a structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by beta glycosidic linkages
Cellulose
a structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by β glycosidic linkagesbe
Cellulose
a structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls; every other monomer is flipped making it impossible to digest (Beta conformation: G-⅁-G-⅁-G); G=glucose
Chitin
a structural polysaccharide, consisting of amino sugar monomers, found in many fungal cell walls and in the exoskeletons of all arthropods
Glycogen
a substance deposited in bodily tissues as a store of carbohydrates. It is a polysaccharide that forms glucose on hydrolysis.
Carbohydrate
a sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its dimers (disaccharides) or polymers (polysaccharides)
carbohydrates
a sugar or one of its dimers or polymers
glycerol
a sugar that combines with fatty acids to make fats and phospholipids, C3H8O3
What is the three-dimensional shape created by hybrid orbitals that are formed when a carbon atom is covalently bonded with four other atoms? a. a triangle with carbon in the center b. a flat sheet with carbon in the center c. a cube with carbon in the center d. a tetrahedron with carbon in the center e. All of the listed responses are possible.
a tetrahedron with carbon in the center The pairs of bonding electrons are oriented as distantly as possible from one another in a tetrahedron with the carbon atom at the center and the other four atoms at the vertices of the tetrahedron.
gylcerol
a three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon
phospholipid bilayer
a two-layered arrangement of phosphate and lipid molecules that form a cell membrane, the hydrophobic lipid ends facing inward and the hydrophilic phosphate ends facing outward.
Steroid
a type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four rings with various functional groups attached
Structural Formula
a type of molecular notation in which constituent atoms are joined by lines representing covalent bonds
Molecular Formula
a type of molecular notation representing the quantity of constituent atoms, but not the nature of the bonds that join them
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
a type of nucleic acid consisting of a polynucleotide made up of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U); usually single-stranded; functions in protein synthesis, gene regulation, and as the genome of some viruses
Hydrophobic Interaction
a type of weak chemical interaction caused when molecules that do not mix with water coalesce to exclude water
glycine
amino acid with no isomers because its R group is a hydrogen
Proteins are polymers of _____.
amino acids
Stanley Miller's experiments were significant because he demonstrated that __________. a. the behavior of any molecule containing a carbon atom was fundamentally the same b. lightning discharges could produce the molecules previously presumed to have originated in volcanic outgassings c. a variety of simple organic compounds could be spontaneously synthesized from components in Earth's primitive atmosphere d. urea could be synthesized from entirely naturally occurring salts e. organic molecules can be synthesized only by living organisms
a variety of simple organic compounds could be spontaneously synthesized from components in Earth's primitive atmosphere By discharging an electrode in a mixture similar to Earth's primitive atmosphere, Miller was able to synthesize a variety of simple organic molecules.
Choose the pair of terms that completes this sentence about functional groups in organic chemistry: Carboxyl is to _____ as _____ is to base. a. acid ... carbonyl b. hydroxyl ... amino c. acid ... amino d. sulfhydryl ... carbonyl e. ketone ... phosphate
acid ... amino
nucleic acid
aka polynucleotides, polymer of nucleotide monomers and macromolecule that contains the genetic information in cells to make proteins and carry out functions
tertiary structure
aka the polypeptide, three dimensional structure stabilized by the interactions between side chains like hydrogen bonds, van der Waals interactions, disulfide bridges, and ionic bonds
What is the compound name of hydroxyl?
alcohol (specific normally ends in -ol)
Although the structures of the functional groups that are most important to life vary, they share one thing in common: They _____. a. all contain oxygen b. always cause the carbon to which they are attached to become an asymmetric carbon, thus converting the molecule into an enantiomer c. all are hydrophilic and increase the organic compound's water solubility d. all have at least one double bond e. force straight chains of carbons into closed rings of carbon
all are hydrophilic and increase the organic compound's water solubility
central carbon
alpha carbon that is attached to the amino and carboxyl group and has an amino attached to it *look at page 57 text for all amino acid groups*
Amino Group
amine
All amino acids have the basic structure of what?
amine group (NH2) and and carboxyl group, with a R group(a variable that is the functional group that is different from one amino acid to another)
Which chemical group is most likely to be responsible for an organic molecule behaving as a base (see Concept 3.3, p. 53)? a. phosphate b. hydroxyl c. carboxyl d. carbonyl e. amino
amino
A functional group on a molecule in solution carries two H atoms at pH 9 and three H atoms at pH 3. The functional group is probably. . . a. carbonyl b. carboxyl c. sulfhydryl d. amino e. phosphate
amino Amino groups take on H+ in acidic solutions.
Gene
amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programed by discrete unit of inheritence
monomers of proteins
amino acids
Phosopholipids in surface of cell
arranged in bilayer - hydrophilic heads of molecules are on the outside of the bilayer - hydrophobic tails point toward interior of bilayer - existence of cells depends on phosopholipids
Antiparallel
arrangement when two sugar-phosphate backbones run in opposite 5' → 3' directions from each other(Two helices of DNA - their direction is opposite (antiparallel) Bound together by bonds (covalent expect for one bond that is hydrogen)
A function of cholesterol that does not harm health is its role _____.
as a component of animal cell membranes
quaternary protein structure
association between two or more polypeptide chains within one protein, uses hydrogen, covalent, ionic, and van der waals interactions
quadrenary structure
association of two or more polypeptides (some proteins only), quadrenary structure is the overall protein structure that results from the aggregation of the polypeptide subunits
why do enantiomers have mirrow images of eachother?
asymetrical carbon, atoms grouped around it are mirrors of eachother
alpha carbon
at the center of a carbon atom
cis geometric isomer
atoms on same side
What is asymmetric carbon?
attached to 4 different atoms/groups
protein
biologically functional molecule made up of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific three dimensional structure
peptide bond
bonds between amino acids
Which of these is found in all amino acids? a. —COOH b. —OH c. —NH2 d. —COH e. both —COOH and —NH2
both —COOH and —NH2 For a compound to be an amino acid, it must contain at least one carboxyl functional group and one amino functional group. In addition, it may contain one or more of the other functional groups.
Plants use carbohydrates as a _______ material
building/structural
asymmetrical carbon
carbon attached to 4 different atoms or groups of atoms
Uracil
found only in RNA
structural polysaccharides
cellulose and chitin
how are steroids characierized?
characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings and chemical groups can attack to rings
functional groups def
chem groups that affect molecular function by being directly involved in the chem rxn
catalysts
chemical agent that selectively increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction, keep cells running by carrying out processes of life
Catalyst
chemical agent that selectively speed up chemical reactions without being consumed by the reaction
catalysts
chemical agents that selectively speed up chemical reactions without being consumed in the reaction
How do testosterone and estradiol differ?
chemical groups attached to their central rings
dehydration reaction
chemical reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other with the removal of a water molecule, when a bond forms between two monomers each one contributes part of the water molecule released during the reaction: one provides hydroxyl group (—OH), while other provides hydrogen (—H), reaction is repeated as monomers are added to the chain one by one, making a polymer
Next to a double covalent bond, the X's are beside each other
cis isomer
lipids
class of molecules insoluable in H20, very non polar
What was Stanley Miller's experiment in 1953?
closed system mimic conditions thought to be environmental conditions of primordial earth, flask of water was primeval sea heated so some vaporized and moved to second higher flask with atmosphere of gases, sparks discharged for lightning
carbohydrate
composed of carbons and water, many C-H bonds release energy during formation making them good for storing energy
Lipids
compound that are grouped together because they share one important trait
adensoine triposphate (ATP)
compound used by cells to store and release energy
adenosine triphosphate
compound used by cells to store and release energy(storing the potential to react with water its the reaction with water that releases energy that the cell can use)
Structural Isomers
compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms
Geometrical Isomers
compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the spatial arrangements of their atoms
isomers
compounds that have the same number of atoms of each element but different structures and thus different properties
Isomer
compounds that have the same number of atoms of the same elements but different structures and properties
Isomers
compounds that have the same numbers of atoms of the same elements but different structures and hence different properties (same number of carbons and hydrogens that are arranged differently)
condensation reaction
connects monomers together on monomers/polymers, a reaction where two molecules are covalent bonded to each other, small molecule is lost
gene
consist of DNA which belongs to the class of compounds called nucleic acids
sides of helix are ________
consistent
Fatty acid
consists of a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton
Secondary structure
consists of coils and folds in the polypeptide chain; the result of hydrogen bonds between constituents of the polypeptide bonds
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
consists of organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of three phosphate groups. - when three phosphates are present in series, as in ATP, one phosphate may be split off as a result of a reaction with water. - storing energy or the potential to react with water.
peptide bond
covalent bond formed between amino acids to form proteins
phosphodiester linkage
covalent bond where a phosphate group bonds to two nucleotide sugars, creates the sugar-phosphate backbone in RNA and DNA
How are adjacent nucleotides joined?
covalently by a phosphodiester linkage (phosphate group links the sugars to 2 nucleotides)
Geometric isomers are molecules that _____. a. differ in their molecular formulas b. are mirror images c. differ in the arrangement of their atoms about a double bond d. are isomers that differ in the covalent partnerships between their atoms e. are isomers in which one of the molecules contains an amino group and the other contains a phosphate group
differ in the arrangement of their atoms about a double bond
Structural isomers
differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms
structural isomers
differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms; may also differ in the location of double bonds
R group
differs with each amino acid and determines the unique characteristics of each protein, the only part of the protein that can move to form isomers
example of enzymatic proteins
digestive enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of bonds in food molecules
gene
discrete unit of inheritance, codes the amino acid sequence to make the correct polypeptide, consists of DNA
lipids
do not include true polymers
Non-ionized carboxyl groups cause a molecule to act as an acid because they ... a. donate H+ ions to water b. take H+ from water c. raise the pH of water d. Both (a) and (c) e. None of the above
donate H+ ions to water Any molecule that donates H+ to water is an acid.
unsaturated fats
double bonds
DNA structer
double helix of two strands wrapped around histome, unchanging shape
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
double helix shaped nucleic acid that provides directions for its own replication as well as the synthesizing of RNA and proteins
DNA characteristics
double helix structure held together by H-bonds antiparallel A w/T Gw/ C
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
double stranded helix, each nucleic acid monomer consists of deoxyribose sugar and a nitrogenous base (ATCG), is replicated and determines inherited structure of cell's proteins
disaccharides
double sugar consisting of two monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkage formed by a dehydration reaction - sucrose=glucose+fructose (table sugar, plants transport from leaves to roots) - maltose=glucose+glucose (malt sugar) - lactose=glucose+galactose (milk sugar)
Disaccharide
double sugars two monosaccharides joined by a covalent bond
disaccharides
double sugars consisting of two monosaccharides joined by a covalent bond
what type of bonds does carbon form with other elements?
double/single covalent bonds
What is L-Dopa and D-Dopa?
enantiomers (L effective against Parkinsons, D bio active)
Function of fats
energy storage
types of bonds for lipids
ester linkage (covalent)
The overall percentages of the major elements of life are quite uniform from one organism to another, reflecting the common _______________ origins of all life.
evolutionary
Molecular biology can be used to asses?
evolutionary kinship
glycogen
extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals (animal equivalent of starch), hydrolysis of glycogen releases glucose when demand for sugar increases, this stored fuel cannot sustain an animal for long (in humans glycogen stores are depleted in about a day unless replenished by eating), issue of concern in low-carbohydrate diets which can result in weakness and fatigue
true or false: smaller polysaccharides are very active and can store lots of energy
false; Larger polysaccharides are very active and can store lots of energy
saturated fats
fats that are solid at room temperature - flexabity allows them to pack toghether closely - most animal fats are saturated.
The most biologically important lipids are
fats, phospholipids, steroids
unsaturated fatty acid
fatty acid that has one or more double bonds between carbons in the hydrocarbon tail, this bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton, liquid at room temperature because the molecules cannot pack tightly together due to the kinks in the hydrocarbon chains (ex. olive oil)
monomer of lipids
fatty acids and glycerol
saturated carbon
fatty acids saturated in hydrogens due to extra bonds open on C, solid at room temp, most animal fats saturated
cellulose
few organisms possess enzymes that can digest _____
disulfide bridges
form where two cysteine monomers, amino acids with sulfhydryl groups on their side chains are brought close together by the folding protein
Glucose and hexanoic acid each contain six carbon atoms, but they have completely different properties. Glucose is a nutrient found in food; hexanoic acid is poisonous. Their differences must be due to different _____. a. isomers b. monomers c. functional groups d. quaternary structures e. macromolecules
functional groups
Acetic Acid
gives vinegar its sour taste
C6H12O6
glucose
Ester linkage
glycerol and fatty acid put together by a dehydration synthesis in a storage of energy (Fats are mostly in animals)
What two types of smaller molecules are fats constructed from?
glycerol and fatty acids
Fats are made up of what? Why is tr
glycerol molecule + 3 fatty acids
What is an example of amino group?
glycine
What is both an amine and a carboxylic acid?
glycine
Unsaturated fatty acids bonds? State at room temp? EX?
have one or more double bonds liquid at room temp. EX: Plant oil
Unsaturated fatty acids
have one or more double bonds (usually plant and fish fats)
Saturated fatty acids
have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and no double bonds (usually animal fats)
Cis - trans isomers
have the same covalent bonds but differ in spatial arrangements
starch vs cellulose
have their glucose molecules in different positions, have different and distinct shapes, also have different enzymes
Why is the head of a phospholipid hydrophilic?
heads= phosphate
example of transport protein
hemoglobin
why would high temperature lead to less enzyme activity
high temp breaks bonds which changes folding which doesn't let the enzyme function properly
The two compounds are related to each other by being __________. a. organic compounds b. hydrocarbons c. double-bonded compounds d. isomers e. hydrocarbons, isomers, organic compounds, and double-bonded compounds
hydrocarbons, isomers, organic compounds, and double-bonded compounds All of the listed responses are true characteristics of the two compounds.
Most organic compounds contain carbon and _____. a. oxygen b. sulfur c. nitrogen d. hydrogen e. phosphate
hydrogen
secondary protein structure
hydrogen bonding of the peptide backbone causes the amino acids to fold into a repeating pattern
The secondary structure of a protein results from _____.
hydrogen bonds
The two strands of a DNA double helix are held together by _____ that form between pairs of nitrogenous bases.
hydrogen bonds
What allows hydroxyl groups to dissolve in water?
hydrogen bonds
what type of bonds hold nucleotides together?
hydrogen bonds
what are the five things that promote protein folding?
hydrogen bonds ionic/polar interactions hydrophobic effects van dar waals forces disulfide bridges
what kind bonds hold the nitrogenus bases of nuclotides together? How?
hydrogen bonds bond them together in opposite directions (5 carbon-3 carbon to 3 carbon-5 carbon)
enantiomers
isomers that are mirror images of each other and that differ in shape due to the presence of an asymetric carbon one that is attached to four different atoms or groups of atoms
enantiomers
isomers that are mirror images of one another, "left side/right side"
Peptide bonds
just a covalent bond formed by a dehydration synthesis but if you're a biologist and here peptide bonds is two amino acids stuck together(Not random - it's the carboxyl group of one and the amine group of another)
What is the compound names of carbonyl?
ketone, aldehyde
Ribulose
ketose
What are carbonyl sugars with ketone groups?
ketoses
fat
large lipids with the function of energy storage, constructed from glycerol and three fatty acids
Macromolecules def
large molecules
purine characteristics and bases
larger six-membered ring duse to a five-membered ring A and G
purines
larger, with a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring - adenine and guanine
Fatty acids vary in?
length (number of carbons) and in the number and locations of double bonds
What determines the types of carbon skeletons?
length, branched/unbranched, double bond position, presence of rings
4 way carbon skeleton differs
length, branching, double bond position, presence of ring
Carbon skeletons can vary in
length, branching, double bond position, presence of rings
What is vitalism vs mechanism?
life force vs phys/chem laws
primary protein structure
linear chain of amino acids joined by peptide bonds (covalent)
primary structure
linear chain of amino acids, like the order of letters in a very long word, there are so many ways amino acids could arrange themselves but genetic information tells our body the appropriate sequences
primary structure
linear chains of amino acids joined by peptide bonds, this sequence is essential to the bonding pattern, folding, structure, and therefore function of the final product protein
Each polypeptide has a unique?
linear sequence of amino acids, with a carboxyl end (C-terminus) and an amino end (N-terminus)
primary structure amino acids
linear sequence of amino acids. Determined by genetic information
fats
lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule, also called a triglyceride, hydrophobic due to nonpolar C-H bonds in hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids, major function is energy storage
phospholipid
lipid made of a glycerol and two fatty acids, has a negatively charged phosphate group but nonpolar fatty acids causing a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails, create phospholipid bilayer for cell membranes
phospholipids
lipid made up of glycerol joined to two fatty acids and a phosphate group, hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids act as nonpolar hydrophobic tails while the rest of the molecule acts as a polar hydrophilic head, form bilayers that function as biological membranes, has only two fatty acids attached to glycerol rather than three, the third hydroxyl group of glycerol is joined to a phosphate group, which has a negative electrical charge in the cell
steroid
lipid that has a carbon skeleton made of four fused rings, differing by the chemical groups attatched
Steroids (cholesterol)
lipid, used for making steroid hormones
Steroids
lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings. Distinguished by the particular chemical groups attached to this ensemble of rings.
steroids def and ex
lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four infused rings EX: cholesterol
Waxes
lipids that are used extensively in plants to retain fluid like the waxy surface on the leaf that is used to retain water(Most animals don't have a lot of lipids, but used more in plants, especially in dry areas)
Fats make up a large part of what big molecule?
lipids; (Not polymers or monomers, but are large molecules)
What form are unsaturated fats at room temperature?
liquid (ex. olive/corn oil)
unsaturated fats
liquid at room temperature - built of one or more types of unsaturated fatty acids
fatty acid compents and where are the groups places?
long carbon skeleton, has carboxyle group on carbon one, hydroxyle group on carbon 6, full of mostly non polar C-H bonds and exclude fats
Polypeptide
long chain of amino acids that makes proteins
fatty acid
long chain of carbon and a carboxyl group, but mostly hydrocarbon bonds, nonpolar and hydrophobic, does not bond with water
Types of RNA and their functions
mRNA - Messenger RNA: Encodes amino acid sequence of a polypeptide. tRNA - Transfer RNA: Brings amino acids to ribosomes during translation. rRNA - Ribosomal RNA: With ribosomal proteins, makes up the ribosomes, the organelles that translate the mRNA.
Polysaccharides
macromolecules, polymers with a few 100-few thousand monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages
polysaccharides
macromolecules, polymers with a few hundred to a few thousand monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages
Polysaccharides
macromolecules, polymers with a few hundred to a few thousand monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages - some serve as storage material, hydrolyzed as needed to provide sugar for cells. - some serve as building material for structures that protect the cell or the whole organism. - structure and function of a polysaccharide determined by its sugar monomers and by the positions of its glycosidic linkages.
what are lipids made of?
made of glycerol bonded too three fatty acids
Carbohydrates
made of sugar and sugar polymers
cellulose
major component in the toughness of plant cell walls, most abundant organic compound on Earth, has all of its glucose in the upside down position, is never branched and always straight so hydrogen bonding can take place
Phospholipids
major component of cell membranes - two fatty acids attached to glyceral - two ends of phospholipids react differently to water.
aldehyde
may be a structural isomer of a ketone
Enzymes are proteins that _______ every _________ inside a cell and are organic catalysts that speed up reactions
moderate, chemical reaction
why would low temp lead to less enzyme activity
molecular motion slows down due to lack of energy
What do various chemical groups affect?
molecular shape
What can phosphate transfer energy between?
molecules
functions of saturated fats
molecules can pack very closely, solid at room temperature, and mostly animal fat
Enantiomers
molecules that are mirror images of each other
functional group
molecules that do not fufill octant rule, bring their own chemical property to molecule
isomers
molecules that have the same chemical formula but have different structures bc their special arrangement is different, the location of double bonds, or even just being mirror images
isomers def
molecules that have the same molecular formula but differ in their arrangement of their atoms (aka structural formulas)
isomer
molecules with the same chemical formula but are arranged in differant ways, lead to small changes in chemical composition
nucleotide
monomer of a nucleic acid, consists of a five carbon sugar (pentose) covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and one to three phosphate groups
amino acid
monomer of proteins, has amine group, carboxyl group, a centered alpha carbon with one hydorgen and a R group
An immense variety of polymers can be built from a small set of _________
monomers
dehydration reaction
monomers are connected by a reaction in which two molecules are covalently bonded to each other with the loss of a water molecule
Dehydration Reaction
monomers are connected by a reaction in which two molecules are covalently bonded to each other, with the loss of a water molecule
hydrolysis
monomers break apart with the addition of a water molecule, lysis to slice it!
Nucleotides
monomers of nucleic acids
dehydration reaction
monomers that bond covalently bond into a polymer and produce a water molecule, dehydrate to create!
Nucleotides
monomers that make up DNA and RNA
monomer of carbs
monosaccharides
what are the monomers of carbohydrates
monosaccharides
what are the simplest carbs?
monosaccharides
how do cells use monosaccharides
monosaccharides provide nutrients for the cells through a series of rxns that break down glucose, cells extract energy from glucose during cell respiration
trans geometric isomer
more stable geometric isomer, atom is on different side
sucrose
most common disacharide
glucose
most common monosaccharide
moter protiens
movement
sickle cell anemia
mutation changes in amino acids have changed the r group leading the blood cells to carry less oxygen than normal group cells
Example of a motor protein
myosin (responsible for the contraction of muscles)
Ketone
name of carbonyl compound when it is within the C-skeleton
What do two oxygens carry in a phosphate group?
negative charge
acidic amino acids are
negatively charged due to carboxyl group
nitrogenous base
nitrogen-containing rings, tend to be basic, can be either pyrimidines or purines, hydrogen bond to each other in DNA
Methyl group
nonpolar 5-methylcytosine
Fossil fuels are ______________ resources
nonrenewable
Why aren't lipids true polymers?
not large enough due to their being an upper limit to size
lipids
not macromolecules, hydrophobic, includes fats, phospholipids, and steroids
Hydrocarbons are nonpolar (hydrophobic), so they are _____________.
not water soluble
ATP is a type of ________ with 3 phosphate groups attached to it
nucleic acid(one phosphate may be split off as a result of a reaction with water);Where energy is contained in the phosphate groups
polynucleotide
nucleic acids are macromolecules that exist as polymers - each monomer has only one phosphate group.
polynucleotides
nucleic acids are macromolecules that exist as polymers called
sugar-phosophate backbone
nucleotides joined adjacently via a phosphates
Macromolecules
on the molecular scale, they are huge molecules (proteins, carbs, and nucleic acids) large molecules aka compounds
Beta (β) Pleated Sheet
one form of the secondary structure of proteins in which the polypeptide chain folds back and forth. two regions of the chain lie parallel to each other and are held together by hydrogen bonds between atoms of the polypeptide backbone (not the side chains)
cis-trans Isomer
one of several compounds that have the same molecular formula and covalent bonds between atoms but differ in the spatial arrangements of their atoms owing to the inflexibility of double bonds; formerly called a geometric isomer
Structural Isomer
one of two or more compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms
structural isomers
one of two or more compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms, may also differ in location of double bonds, number of possible isomers increase as carbon skeleton increases in size
Isomer
one of two or more compounds that have the same numbers of atoms of the same elements but different structures and hence different properties
purines
one of two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides, characterized by a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring, adenine (a) and guanine (G)
Purine
one of two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides, characterized by a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring. adenine (A) and guanine (G) are purines
pyrimidines
one of two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides, characterized by a six-membered ring, cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U) are pyrimidines
Prymidine
one of two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides, characterized by a six-membered ring. Cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U) are pyrimidines
unsaturated fatty acid
one or more double bonds, with one fewer hydrogen atom on each double-bonded carbon
Unsaturated fatty acid
one or more double bonds, with one fewer hydrogen atom on each double-bonded carbon (Not full of hydrogen (have a lot) but there are double bonds between the carbon Not saturated / not full - carbon still have to have four bonds) Liquid at room temperature - ie olive oil
A functional protein consists of?
one or more polypeptides precisely twisted, folded, and coiled into a unique shape
in dehydration rxns what do the molecules provide
one provides an OH- and the other provides an H+
trans
opposite side
hydrocarbons
oraganic molecules with only hydrogens and carbon, non polar, can undergo reactions that release large amounts of energy
The study of carbon compounds, _______________ chemistry, which deals with any compound with carbon.
organic
Carboxylic Acid
organic acids; compounds containing a carboxyl group
hydrocarbons
organic molecules made of only hydrogen and carbon using nonpolar covalent bonds, prevalent in fats, components of fossil fuel, can undergo reactions that release a lot of energy
What was the conclusion of Miller's experiment?
organic molecules may have been synthesized abiotically on early earth
hydrocarbons def
organic molecules that only contain carbon and hydrogen
Amino acids
organic molecules with carboxyl and amino groups
amino acid
organic monomer with an amino group and carboxyl group and alpha carbon in the center, the R group determines the specific one and its properties, only 20 of them total where the unique sequence changes the polypeptide as a whole
What is the compound name of a phosphate group?
organic phosphate
phosphate group
organic phosphate (
How does cellulose help other animals
other animals need it to obtain food; fungi need it to recycle chem elements w/in an ecosystem
tertiary structures
overall shape of the polypeptide chain resulting in interactions of R groups
Hydrogen bonds are between...
oxygen and hydrogen
What does "-ate" mean?
oxygen is present
plant and fish fats
packed loosly, liquid at room temp
animal fats
packed tightly, solid at room temp
why is arrangement of monomers key to polymer function?
particular linear sequence of monomers changes the functionality of molecules
acidic and basic amino acids would technically be hydro________
philic
amphiatic molecule
phosophate region is polar/hydrophilic, fatty acid chain is nonpolar/hydrophobic
Key component of ATP
phosphate
What functional group is commonly used in cells to transfer energy from one organic molecule to another? a. hydroxyl b. amino c. phosphate d. sulfhydryl e. carboxyl
phosphate The addition and release of phosphate groups to and from ADP and ATP is how cells store chemical energy and expend it to accomplish work.
Which of the following functional groups is associated with a release of energy when removed from the carbon skeleton with water? a. phosphate group b. carboxyl group c. amino group d. hydroxyl group e. sulfhydryl group
phosphate group Cleaving a phosphate group from ATP releases energy that is used to perform many cellular functions.
A nucleotide is composed of a(n) _____.
phosphate group, a nitrogen-containing base, and a five-carbon sugar
Nucleotide bonds
phosphodiester linkages phosphate group links the sugars of the two nucleotides
Vitalism gave way to mechanism, the view that _____. a. there was a life force outside the jurisdiction of physical and chemical laws b. physical and chemical laws govern living systems c. life on Earth began by way of abiotic synthesis of organic compounds d. carbon's ability to form four covalent bonds makes complex molecules possible e. bond angles are unpredictable
physical and chemical laws govern living systems Living things are subject to physical and chemical laws. They do not exist outside of them.
starch
plants storage polysacharide, made of glucose monomers
starch
plants store starch, a polymer of glucose monomers, as granules within cells. - Synthesizing starch enables the plant to stockpile surplus glucose. - starch represents stored energy - sugar can later be withdrawn from this carbohydrate bank by hydrolysis
functional group and why isnt methyl considered a functional group
play a direct role in chemical reactions and methyl is not reactive and often serves as an id card for bio molecules
Is hydroxyl polar or non polar?
polar
Carbonyl group
polar acetone
Proteins: h-bonds occur b/w ________________
polar chains
Hydrolysis
polymers are broken down into monomers through the addition of water molecules
polysaccharides
polymers composed of many sugar building block joined together by dehydration reactions
nucleic acids
polymers made of monomers called nucleotides
nucleic acids
polymers made of monomers called nucleotides - deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid
Proteins (polypeptides) are
polymers made up of amino acid monomers
Proteins
polymers made up of monomers called amino acids
Polynucleotides
polymers of nucleic acids that is made up of nucleotides
nucleic acids
polymers of nucleotides
difference between polypeptide and protein
polypeptide= chain of many amino acids, protein= functional molecule; until polypeptide has been folded into functional shape it is not a protein
polymers of proteins
polypeptides
polymer of carbs
polysaccharide
Chitin
polysaccharide and carbohydrates that makes up exoskeletons for species such as crustaceans and fungi use
cellulose
polysaccharide consisting of glucose monomers that reinforces plant-cell walls
Cellulose
polysaccharide consisting of glucose monomers that reinforces plant-cell walls.
nucleoside
portion of a nucleotide without phosphate groups after they are lost during the polymerization process
Proteins: ionic occur b/w ________________
pos. and neg. charged r groups that help stabilize tertiary structure
what determines whether a polysaccharide will be a storage vs. structural molecule
position of bonds
geometric isomer
positioning of atoms around a double bond or functional group differs
basic amino acids are
positively charged
gene expression
process by which a gene produces its product and the product carries out its function
Gene expression
process by which a gene produces its product and the product carries out its function (ex. DNA directs synthesis of messenger RNA and through mRNA controls protein synthesis)
gene expression
process by which information encoded in DNA directs the synthesis of proteins or RNA's that are not translated into proteins and instead function as RNA's, genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein
hydrolysis def
process that breaks apart two bonded monomers by the addition of water
secondary structure of protein
protein structure is formed by folding and twisting of amino acid chain - results from hydrogen bonds between repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone
Antibodies
proteins that are a defense against foreign things in your body and can store energy
gobular proteins
proteins that are roughly spherical
fibrous proteins
proteins that are shaped like long fibers
Enzymes
proteins that speed up chemical reactions in the body
The four main categories of large biological molecules present in living systems are __________.
proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids
Polysaccharide roles
provide sugar for cells serves as the building materials for structures that protect the cell
DNA
provides directions for its own replication, directs RNA synthesis and through RNA controls protien sythesis - gentic material inherited from parents
Types of nitrogenous bases
purines and pyrimidines
Antiparallel
referring to the arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix (they run in opposite 5' -3' directions).
Antipaplell
referring to the arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix (they run in opposite 5′ ? 3′ directions)
secondary structure
regions stabilized by hydrogen bonds between atoms of the polypeptide backbones, sets of amino acid chains, either in alpha helix shape or beta pleated sheet
Which of the following functional groups is associated with the amino acid cysteine which maintains the curliness or straightness of hair? a. amino group ( - NH2) b. sulfhydryl group ( - SH) c. phosphate group (PO4-) d. methyl group (-CH3)
sulfhydryl group ( - SH)
which of the 6 functional groups are hydrophobic
sulfhydryl is hydrophobic the rest are hydrophilic and increase solubility of organic compounds in water
structeral protiens
support
Carbon atoms are _____________, so they can form four bonds with an angle of about _____________.
tetravalent, 109.5°
deoxyribose
the 5 carbon sugar ring in DNA, lacks an oxygen atom on the second carbon
ribose
the 5 carbon sugar ring in RNA, has an oxygen atom on the second atom
Ethanol
the alcohol present in alcoholic beverages
Nitrogen is found in ____________
the amino group (important for DNA & proteins)
what part of amino acids link together to form peptide bonds?
the bond forms between the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the hydrogen of another
Amino acids are what?
the building blocks of proteins(20 different kinds of amino acids)
chitin
the carbohydrate used by arthropods to build their protective exoskeletons, similar to cellulose but has nitrogen
peptide bond
the covalent bond between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group on another, formed by a dehydration reaction, this process yields a polypeptide
Peptide Bond
the covalent bond between the carboxyl group on one amino acid and the amino group on another, formed by a dehydration reaction
Hydrocarbons are hydrophobic because
the covalent bonds between hydrogen and carbon are nonpolar
carbs lipids proteins and nucleic acids
the critically important large molecules of all living things fall into just four main classes
5' end
the end of the sugar-phosphate backbone that ends in a 5 carbon ring
ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
the molecule that is produced when ATP is split to yield energy - reaction releases energy
A general rule for processes such as respiration is the more carbon atoms there are in a molecule...
the more energy that molecule can provide to the organism when it is used as food.
Valence
the number of covalent bonds an atom can form
what does the order of bases in a gene determine?
the order of amino acids of proteins and thus other levels of structure and resulting function as well
tertiary structure
the overall shape of a polypeptide resulting from interactions between the side chains of the various amino acids
Tertiary Structure
the overall shape of a protein molecule due to interactions of amino acid side chains, including hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bridges
true or false: Monosaccharide is a building block of carbohydrates (like the monomers of carbs)
true
Variations in the reactive properties of different organic molecules are most closely associated with _____. a. the orientation of the carbon skeleton, as either ringed or linear b. the number of asymmetric carbon atoms present c. the number of carbon atoms comprising the molecule's skeleton d. the presence or absence of double bonds e. the presence or absence of functional groups
the presence or absence of functional groups Functional groups are the most common participants in chemical reactions.
Gene Expression
the process by which information encoded in DNA directs the synthesis of proteins or, in some cases, RNAs that are not translated into proteins and instead function as RNAs
denaturation
the process where a protein unfolds and loses its shape and cannot function properly due to a significant change in pH, salt concentration, or temperature
gene expression
the process where encoded information in DNA and RNA is used to make proteins which then give the cell or organism certain functions, processes, or properties
quaternary structure
the protein finished product, some proteins have two or more polypeptides
what determines how a protein will fold
the r-group
Monomers
the repeating units that serve as the building blocks of a polymer; small molecules than polymers(building blocks of polymers)
Which action could produce a carbonyl group? a. the replacement of the -OH of a carboxyl group with hydrogen b. the addition of a hydroxyl to a phosphate c. the addition of a sulfhydryl to a carboxyl d. the replacement of the nitrogen of an amine with oxygen e. the addition of a thiol to a hydroxyl
the replacement of the -OH of a carboxyl group with hydrogen
Monosaccharide
the simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides. also known as simple sugars, monosaccharides have molecular formulas that are generally some multiple of CH2O
Acetone
the simplest ketone
Carbohydrates
the starches and sugars found in foods which are used as fuel and building material
nuclaic acids
the storage, expression, and transmission of genetic information
Organic chemistry is currently defined as a. the study of compounds made only by living cells. b. the study of carbon compounds. c. the study of vital forces. d. the study of natural (as opposed to synthetic) compounds. e. the study of hydrocarbons.
the study of carbon compounds
Genomics
the study of whole sets of genes and their interactions within a species, as well as genome comparisons between species
What can greatly affect the activities of organic molecules?
the subtle difference in shape between cis-trans isomers
Monomer
the subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer
Deoxyribose
the sugar component of DNA nucleotides, having one fewer hydroxyl group than ribose, the sugar component of RNA nucleotides
Ribose
the sugar component of RNA nucleotides
Proteomics
the systematic study of the full protein sets (proteomes) encoded by genomes
hydrophobic interaction
the tendency for hydrophobic molecules to cluster together when immersed in water exludes non polar substances by water molecules
antiparallel
the two DNA strands run in opposite directions from each other, one being 5' to 3' and the other 3' to 5'
what does it mean if a vegetable oil has been hydrogenated
the unsaturated fats have been converted into saturated fats by adding hydrogen
Fat
they are molecules assembled from smaller molecules by dehydration reactions(not polymers)
human sex hormones are considered lipids bc
they aren't soluble in water
what do the physical and chemical properties of the side chain determine?
they determine the unique characteristics of a particular amino acid
proteins are the most functionally diverse group of molecules. what does this imply about their shape?
they have many unique 3-dim structures that they form
What was the before thinking about organic carbon and its origins?
thought to only arise in living organisms, life force beyond jurisdiction of physical and chemical laws
A molecule has one carbon-carbon double bond and four monovalent atoms or groups. How many different cis-trans isomers exist for this molecule? a. none b. two c. four d. six e. eight
two Only two cis-trans isomers exist.
peptide bond
two amino acids are positioned so that the carboxyl group of one is adjacent to the amino group of the other, they can become joined by dehydration reaction, with the removal of a water molecule - repeating this over and over forms a polypeptide
Phospholipid
two fatty acids and a phosphate group are attached to glycerol
Phosopholipids
two fatty acids and one phosophate group, amphiatic molecule with hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail
Disaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose)
two monomers hooked together by glycosidic linkage S: Fructose and Glucose = table sugar L: Galactose and Glucose = milk sugar M: Glucose and Glucose = malt sugar
Disaccharide
two or more monosaccharides joined by glycosidic ( covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by dehydration reaction) Ex. Sucrose (glucose and Fructose)
b pleated sheet
two or more segments connected by hydrogen bonds between parts of the two parallel segments of polypeptide chain lying side by side
pleated sheet
two segments of chain are connected by hydrogen bonds formed between parallel segments of the backbone
alpha helix and beta pleated sheet
two types of secondary structures
steroids
type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four rings with various functional groups attached
polypeptide
unbranched polymer of amino acids where each is linked by peptide bonds
Polypeptides
unbranched polymers built from the same set of 20 amino acids
Polypeptide
unbranched polymers constructed from same set of 20 amino acids
The phrase "hydrogenated vegetable oils" means...
unsaturated fats have been synthetically converted to saturated fats by adding hydrogen, allowing them to solidify. This process also produces unsaturated fats with trans double bonds, known as trans fats.
The first organic molecule to be synthesized from inorganic substances that could be prepared directly from inorganic substances was _____. a. urea b. insulin c. DNA d. ammonium cyanate e. acetic acid
urea
Why are the percentage of major elements in life different to some extent?
variations of compounds created
The idea that organic components could only arise in living organisms because they have a special life force.
vitalism
how do phosophobilipid bilayers form?
water inside the cell pushes heads twards H2O and lipid tails that come together to form phosopholipid bilayer, make membranes semipermiable because the glycerol allows only hydrophobic molecules to go in
When breaking down a molecule in hydrolysis...
water is added to the molecules to break monomers apart from each other(Different enzymes do the different jobs) *Polymers are disassembled to monomers through this process*
hydrophilic head
water loving - phopholipids are added to water, they self assemble into double layered structures called bilayers, shielding their hydrophobic portions from water
What were the gases in Miller's atmosphere?
water, H2, NH3, CH4
4 ex of lipids
waxes, oils, fats and steroids
DNA and RNA
what are the two types of nucleic acids
sucrose
what is the most prevalent disaccharide (table sugar)
carbs proteins and nucleic acid
what three out of the four macromolecules are chain like molecules called polymers
Double helix
when DNA molecules have two polynucleotides (strands) that wind around an imaginary axis
saturated fatty acid
when a carbon chain has no double bonds and thus optimal space for hydrogen, usually solid at room temperature
unsaturated fatty acid
when a carbon chain has one or more double bonds and thus less hydrogen, natural double bonds are cis and cause a bent shape in the chain, usually liquid at room temperature
adenosine diphosphate
when atp loses a phosphate group due to being split off as a result of a reaction with water it becomes
dehydration reaction
when two molecules are covalently bonded to each other, with the loss of a water molecule(Monomers connected by this process to build a polymer)
For enantiomers, is usually only 1 isomer biologically active?
yes, b/c only form can bind to specific molecules
when you have a carbon skeleton....
you can also have functional groups
Four Ways that Carbon Skeletons Can Vary:
• Length • Branching • Double Bond Position • Presence of Rings
Functional Groups:
• Perform chemical reactions • A group of atoms responsible for the characteristic behavior of the class of compounds in which the group occurs, as the hydroxyl group in alcohols • Give organic compounds unique properties • Affect shape and non-covalent interaction • Most contain polar bonds and interaction with H bonding
