Chapter 4: What have you learned?

What does the term working model mean within cognitive theory?

An infant's early experiences are not necessarily pivotal, but the interpretation of those experiences is. Children misinterpret experiences, or parents offer inaccurate explanations, and these situations may form ideas that affect later thinking and behavior. For example, a 1-year-old girl might develop a model, based on her parents' inconsistent responses to her, that people are unpredictable. She will continue to apply that model to everyone: Her childhood friendships will be insecure, and her adult relationships will be guarded.

What has been learned from the research on Romanian orphans?

Early emotional deprivation, not genes or nutrition, was their greatest problem. Those adopted before 6 months of age fared best Those adopted later's emotions and intellect suffered, especially if social deprivation lasted a year or longer

What experiences trigger happiness, anger, and fear?

Happiness is first expressed by the social smile at about 6 weeks, is evoked by sight of the human face—most commonly that of a caregiver. Anger is usually triggered by frustration. Typical 1-year-old children fear both strangers and separation from their caregivers. Many also fear anything unexpected, from the flush of the toilet to the pop of a jack-in-the-box.

How might Erikson's crisis of "trust versus mistrust" affect later life?

If positive social interactions in infancy inspire trust, later in life the child or adult will likely explore the social world with confidence. The inverse would be true for infants who develop mistrust at this stage; they would lack confidence in their engagement with the world and assume that their basic needs cannot be met.

What lessons can be learned from the experiences of infant care in Norway?

In Norway, where mothers are paid a full salary to stay at home with their infants until age 1, high-quality, free center care is provided from age 1 on. Almost all Norwegian toddlers are in center care by age 3. Longitudinal results find no detrimental results for these toddlers, indicating that high-quality center care after age 1 actually may benefit parents and children alike.

What is the significance of how toddlers react to seeing themselves in a mirror?

In a classic experiment, 9-24 month olds looked at a mirror after a dot of rouge had been surreptitiously put on their noses. If children touched the red dot on their noses, it proved that they knew the mirror reflected their own faces, thus proving that they had self-awareness.

What is the difference between proximal and distal parenting?

In proximal parenting, the caregiver is always physically close to the baby, often holding and touching. In distal parenting, caregivers keep more distance between themselves and the baby—providing toys, encouraging self-feeding, talking face-to-face instead of through touch.

Why does synchrony affect early emotional development?

Parental responsiveness during synchrony aids psychosocial and biological development by providing powerful learning experiences. With every parental interaction, infants learn to read another's facial expression, body language, and emotions, thereby laying the foundation for the development of social skills.

According to Freud, what might happen if a baby's oral needs are not met?

The baby may develop an oral fixation, which may result in the adult eating or drinking to excess, chewing tobacco, biting nails, or talking excessively.

How do temperamental traits affect later personality?

The expression of emotions and personality over the life span is modified by experience—the result of child-rearing methods, culture, and learning. Research shows that traces of childhood temperament last into adulthood, but it also confirms that innate tendencies are only part of the story. Sometimes change is possible—especially if babies were fearful, for instance. Adults who are reassuring can help children overcome fearfulness. Context always shapes behavior

What aspects of infant care are agreed on by everyone?

The presence of consistent caregivers seems to be the most important factor, whether the caregiver is a family member or a professional. Equally important is the personal responsiveness of the caregiver.

How are proximity-seeking and contact-maintaining attachment expressed by infants and caregivers?

To maintain proximity, caregivers sing and talk to their infant when they are out of sight; they may also take their infants wherever they go. Examples of contact-maintaining behaviors include caregivers absentmindedly smoothing their child's hair or caressing their child's hands. Infants may cry if the caregiver closes the door when going to the bathroom, or fuss if a back-facing car seat prevents the baby from seeing the parent.

How is social referencing important in toddlerhood?

Toddlers use social referencing (looking to other people's facial expressions and body language) to detect what is safe, frightening, or fun.

How might each of the four types of attachment be expressed in adulthood?

Type-B have good relationships and good self-esteem. Type-A are aloof in personal relationships. Type-C are angry, stormy, and unpredictable in their relationships. Type-D demonstrate sudden emotions and are at risk for psychological disorders.

Why do cultures differ on the benefits of infant nonmaternal care?

Around the world, the impact of nonmaternal care depends on many factors that vary from one nation, one culture, and one family to another. In the poorest countries, virtually no infant receives nonmaternal care, whereas in developed nations, most babies from wealthy families are either cared for by a nanny or babysitter at home, or in a day-care facility. The cost and quality of care in each of these scenarios varies for cultural, ideological, and economic reasons. Countries such as France, China, Chile, Norway, and Sweden offer government-subsidized center care, and thus center care in those places is quite common and accepted. Meanwhile, in South Asia, Africa, and Latin America, center care is scarce because parents consider it harmful.

How does evolution explain the parent¬-child bond?

Because infants are incredibly dependent on their caregivers for constant care and attention, they must attract adult devotion. They do this successfully through their appearance, as well as by smiling, laughing, and snuggling with their caregivers.

How do behaviorists explain the development of emotions and personality?

Behaviorists believe a child's emotions and personality are molded as parents reinforce or punish a child. In addition, infants absorb information from the people around them through social learning.

Which infants are most likely to benefit from center care?

Center care benefits children of low-income families, especially when they are securely attached to their mothers.

How do emotions differ between the first and second year of life?

Emotions take on new strength during toddlerhood. Anger and fear become less frequent but more focused, targeted toward especially infuriating or terrifying experiences. Laughing and crying are louder and more discriminating. Social awareness develops, ushering in the new emotions of pride, shame, embarrassment, disgust, and guilt.

What are the similarities and differences in mothers and fathers?

Fathers tend to elicit more smiles and laughter from their infants than mothers do. They tend to play more exciting games, swinging and chasing, while mothers do more caregiving and comforting. Although women do more child care than men in every nation, and men are more likely to play with their children, ideally both parents coordinate their efforts, with specifics attuned to their particular strengths

Why is allocare necessary for survival of the human species?

If mothers were the exclusive caregivers of each child until children were adults, a given woman could only rear one or two offspring—not enough for the species to survive. Allocare is necessary so that mothers can have more children than they can care for on their own.

How has father care changed in recent decades?

Increasingly, paid leave is allowed for fathers, or family leave can be taken by either parent. Fathers are providing more care for their infants, but mothers are still the primary caregivers.

How does infant behavior differ in each of the four types of attachment?

Type-B secure infants can separate from their caregiver but prefer their caregiver to strangers Type-A insecure infants avoid the caregiver upon their reunion. Type-C insecure infants appear upset and worried when separated from their caregivers; they may hit or cling. Type-D disorganized infants appear angry, confused, erratic, or fearful.