Chapter 5 Motivation

Motivation

25% of the workforce is engaged; 55% are not engaged; and 20% are actively disengaged, meaning they're spreading their unhappiness to others.

Self-Efficacy

A major factor in the success of goal setting is this. This is an internal belief regarding one's job-related capabilities and competencies.

Social Learning

A special type of learning theory, also known as vicarious learning. This suggests that employees do not always have to learn directly from their own experiences. Instead, they may and even are likely to learn by observing the actions of others, understanding the consequences that others are experiencing, and using that new information to modify their own behavior.

Expectancy Model

A widely accepted approach to motivation, also known as expectancy theory, developed by Victor H. Vroom and expanded and refined by Poter and Lawlwer and others. Vroom explains that motivation is a product of three factoros: 1. how much one wants a reward (Valence). 2. one's estimate of the probability that effor will result in successful performance (expectancy). 3. one's estimate that performance will result in receiving the reward (instrumentality). Valence X Expectancy X Instrumentality = Motivation

Alderfer's E-R-G Model

Alderfer's E-R-G Model Existence Needs - Employee's are initially interested in satisfying their existence needs, which combine physiological and security factors. Pay, physical working conditions, job security, and fringe benefits can all address these needs. Relatedness needs - Are at the next level, and these social factors involve being understood and accepted by people above, below, and around the employee at work and away from it. Growth Needs - Are in the third category; these involve the desire for both self-esteem and self actualization. E-R-G Model - The impending converstation between the president and the marketing manager could be structured around Alderfer's ERG Model.

Relatedness Needs

Alderfer's E-R-G Model - Are at the next level, and these social factors involve being understood and accepted by people above, below, and around the employee at work and away from it.

Growth Needs

Alderfer's E-R-G Model - Are in the third category; these involve the desire for both self-esteem and self actualization.

Existence Needs

Alderfer's E-R-G Model - Employee's are initially interested in satisfying their existence needs, which combine physiological and security factors. Pay, physical working conditions, job security, and fringe benefits can all address these needs.

A Model of Motivation

Although a few spontaneous human activities occur without motivation, nearly all conscious behavior is motivated, or caused. Potential Performance (PP) - is a product of availability (A) - and motivation (M).

Extrinsic Motivators

Are external rewards that occur apart form the nature of work, providing no direct satisfaction at the time the work is performed.

Intrinsic Motivators

Are internal rewards that a person feels when performing a job, so there is a direct and often immediate connection between work and rewards. An employee in this situation is self-motivated.

Goals

Are targets and objectives for future performance.

Primary Needs

Basic physical needs like food, water, sex, sleep, air and reasonably comfortable temperature and humidity.

What are some Common managerial behaviors that detract from motivation?

Common managerial behaviors that detract from motivation include: 1. Tolerating poor performance by others. 2. Leveling undue criticism at employees. 3. Failing to provide clear expectations. 4. Making false promises of incentives available. 5. Unfair distribution of rewards (favoritism).

Goal Acceptance

Effective goals need not to be not only understood but also actively accepted.

Interpreting the Hierarchy of Needs

Employees are more enthusiastically motivated by what they are currently seeking than by receiving more of what they already have. Managers need to do the following: 1. Identify and accept employee needs. 2. Recognize that needs may differ among employees. 3. Offer satisfaction for the particular needs currently unmet. 4. Realize that giving more of the same reward (especially one that satisfies lower-order needs) may have a diminishing impact on motivation.

Valence X Expectancy X Instrumentality = Motivation

Expectancy Model

Interpreting the Equity Model - Procedural Justice

Fairness from an employee's equity perspective, applies not only to the actual size of rewards and their relation to inputs provided, but also to the process by which they are administrated. This is the essence of procedural justice approach to motivation, which focuses on two elements - interpersonal treatment and clarity of explanations.

Maslow's Lower-Order Needs

First level involve basic survival and include physiological needs for food, ari, water, and sleep. The second level that tend sto dominate is bodily safety (such as freedom from a dangerous work environment) and economic security (such as no-layoff guarantee or a comfortable retirement plan).

Specificity

Goals need to be as specific, clear, and measurable as possible so employees will know when a goal is reached.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Identifies and focuses attention on five levels. Lower-Order Needs - First level involve basic survival and include physiological needs for food, ari, water, and sleep. The second level that tend sto dominate is bodily safety (such as freedom from a dangerous work environment) and economic security (such as no-layoff guarantee or a comfortable retirement plan). Higher-Order Needs - The third level is the hierarchy concerns love, belonging, and social involvement at work. The fourth level encompass those for esteem and status, including one's feelings of self-worth and of competence. The fifth-level need is self-actualization, which is an ongoing process of becoming all that one is capable of becoming using one's skills to the fullest, having a rich combination of values and purpose, and stretching talents to the maximum.

Human Needs

If we treated (maintained) people as well as we do expensive machines, we would have more productive and hence more satisfied workers.

Equity Theory - Inputs

Include all the rich and diverse elements that employees believe they bring, or contribute to the job. their education, seniority, prior work experiences, loyalty and commitment, time and effort, creativity, and job performance.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivators

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivators The difference between job content and job context similar to the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivators in psychology.

Achievement Motivation

Is a drive some people have to pursue and attain challenging goals.

Power Motivation

Is a drive to influence people, take control, and change situations.

Affiliation Motivation

Is a drive to relate to people on a social basis - to work with compatible people and experience a sense community.

Shaping

Is a systematic and progressive application of positive reinforcement. It occurs more frequent, or more powerful, reinforcements are successively given as the employee comes closer to hte desired behavior.

Punishment

Is the administration of an unfavorable consequence that discourages a certain behavior. Although punishment may be necessary occasionally to discourage an undesirable behavior, it needs to be used with caution because it has certain limitations.

Work Motivation

Is the result of a set of internal and external fores that cause an employee to choose an appropriate course of action and engage in certain behaviors.

Expectancy

Is the strength of belief that one's work related effort will result in completion of a task.

Extinction

Is the withholding of significant positive consequences that were previously provided for a desirable behavior.

Managerial Application of the Drives

Knowledge of the differences among the 3 motivational drives requires managers to think contingently and to understand the unique work attitudes of each employee.

Maintenance and Motivational Factors

Maintenance factors include hygiene factors, because they must not be ignored. They are necessary for building a foundation on which to subsequently create a reasonable level of motivation in employees.

What do managers need to ask employees?

Managers need to communicate with employees, asking them three kinds of questions: 1. Which of the rewards available do you value the most? 2. Do you believe your effort will result in successful performance? (and if not what can I do to reassure you?) 3. How likely is it that you will receive your desired rewards if you perform well?

Performance Feedback

Many employees are hungry for information about how well they are performing. Without it, the timely provision of data or judgment regarding task related results employees will be working in the dark and have no true idea how successful they are.

Comparison of the Maslow, Herzberg, and the Alderfer Models

Maslow and Alderfer focus on the internal needs of the employee, wheras Herzberg also identifies and differentiates the conditions that could be provided for need satisfaction.

How the Expectancy Model Works

Motivation - The product of valence, expectancy and instrumentality. The Impact of Uncertainty Primary Outcomes - result directly from an action. Secondary Outcomes - Follow from the primary ones.

Job Content and Context

Motivators mostly are job-centered, and relate to job content. Motivational factors such as achievement and responsibly are related, for the most part, directly to the job itself, the employee performance, and the personal recognition and growht that employees experience. On the other hand, maintenance factors are mainly realted to job context because they are more related to the environment surrounding the job.

Motivational Factors

Motivators or satisfiers, 8 Herzberg upset the traditional view by stating hat certain job factors, such as job security and working conditions, dissatisfy employees primarily when the conditions are absent.

Performance Monitoring

Observing behavior, inspecting output, or studying performance indicators -- provides at least subtle cues to employees that their tasks are important.

Negative Reinforcement

Occurs when behavior is accompanied by removal of an unfavorable consequence' therefore, it is not the same as punishment, which normally adds something unfavorable.

Partial Reinforcement

Occurs when only some of the correct behaviors are reinforced -- either after a certain time or after a number of correct responses.

Continuous Reinforcement

Occurs when reinforcement accompanies each correct behavior by an employee.

Herzberg's Two-Factor Model

On the basis of research with a group of engineers and accountants, Frederick Herzberg developed a two-factor model of motivation.

Motivational Drives

People tend to develop certain motivational drives (strong desires for something) as a product of the cultural environment in which they live.

Challenge

Perhaps surprisingly, most employees work harder and achieve more when they have difficult goals to accomplish rather than easy ones.

Positive Reinforcements

Provides a favorable consequence that encourages repetition of a behavior. Employee's like recognition!

Valence

Refers to the strength of a person's preference for receiving a reward.

Instrumentality

Represents the employee's belief that a reward will be received once the task is accomplished.

Secondary Needs

Social and psychological needs, represent the needs of the mind and spirit. Managerial planning should consider the effect of any proposed action on the secondary needs of employees.

Equity Theory

States that employees tend to judge fairness by comparing the outcomes they receive with their relevant inputs (contributions) and also comparing this ratio with the ratios of other people.

E-R-G Model

The impending conversation between the president and the marketing manager could be structured around Alderfer's ERG Model.

Interpreting Behavior Modification

The major benefit of behavior modification is that is makes managers become more conscious motivators.

Maslow's Higher-Order Needs

The third level is the hierarchy concerns love, belonging, and social involvement at work. The fourth level encompass those for esteem and status, including one's feelings of self-worth and of competence. The fifth-level need is self-actualization, which is an ongoing process of becoming all that one is capable of becoming using one's skills to the fullest, having a rich combination of values and purpose, and stretching talents to the maximum.

Characteristics of Achievers

They work harder when they perceive that they will receive personal credit for their efforts, when the risk of failure is only moderate, and when they receive specific feedback about their past performance.

Interpreting the Two-Factor Model

This model broadens manger's perspectives by showing the potentially powerful role of intrinsic rewards that evolve from the work itself.

Advantages of the Expectancy Model

Valuable for helping managers to understand and think about the mental processes through which motivation occurs.

Law of Effect

Which states that a person tends to repeat behavior that is accompanied by favorable consequences (reinforcement) and tends not to repeat behavior that is accompanied by unfavorable (or lack of) consequences.

Interpreting the Equity Model - Equity Sensitivity

Which suggests that individuals have different preferences for equity.

What are the three elements of work motivation?

Work motivation has complex psychological factors, there are three elements: 1. Direction and focus of the behavior (positive factors are dependability, creativity, helpfulness, timeliness; dysfunctional factors are tardiness, absenteeism, withdrawal, and low performance.) 2. Level of the Effort provided (making a full commitment to excellence versus doing just enough to get by. 3. Persistence of the behavior (repeatedly maintaining the effort versus giving up prematurely or doing it just sporadically.)

Goal Setting

Works as a motivational process because it creates a discrepancy between current and expected performance.

Equity Theory - Outcomes

are the rewards they perceive they get from their jobs and employers; these outcomes include direct pay and bonuses, fringe benefits, job security, social rewards, and psychological rewards.

Organizational Behavior Modification, or MOD

is the application in organizations of the principles of behavior modification, which evolved from the work of B.F. Skinner.