Chapter 6 - Cognitive development

Axel, who is younger than age 10, will have difficulty reasoning from premises that contradict reality or his own beliefs because he is not yet able to A) analyze the logic of propositions in situations in which he has had extensive experience. B) grasp the logical necessity of propositional thought. C) recognize symbolic objects as both objects and symbols. D) apply his problem-solving strategies.

B) grasp the logical necessity of propositional thought.

Categorization helps infants learn and remember by A) teaching them how to group abstract stimuli. B) enhancing their symbolic understanding. C) reducing the enormous amount of new information they encounter every day. D) pairing objects with word associations.

C) reducing the enormous amount of new information they encounter every day.

With respect to the personal fable, viewing the self as highly capable and influential helps young people A) cope with the "storm and stress" of puberty. B) view the imaginary audience more realistically and avoid negative emotions. C) cope with the challenges of adolescence. D) recognize their vulnerability and decrease their risk-taking behaviors.

C) cope with challenges of adolsesnce

Laboratory research suggests that deferred imitation is present at __________ of age. A) 6 weeks B) 12 weeks C) 6 months D) 14 months

A) 6 weeks

More seriously than other perspectives, core knowledge theorists have addressed which of the following questions? A) "Why is experience essential for children and the knowledge they are born with?" B) "Why does speed of learning differ in children?" C) "What allows learning to get off the ground?" D) "Do all aspects of cognition develop uniformly, or do some develop at faster rates than others?"

C) "What allows learning to get off the ground?"

Gregor just turned 21⁄2. By this age, the video deficit effect A) declines. B) increases. C) peaks. D) stabilizes.

A) declines

Which of the following statements is supported by research on make-believe play? A) When adults participate, toddlers' make-believe play is more elaborate than when they play alone. B) In early childhood, make-believe play often occurs with an imaginary companion. C) In cultures where make-believe play occurs with older siblings rather than with mothers, the fantasy play of toddlers is hindered. D) Children are more likely to combine schemes into complex sequences when engaging in make-believe play with agemates than when they are playing with caregivers.

A) When adults participate, toddlers' make-believe play is more elaborate than when they play alone.

According to theory theory, A) children draw on innate concepts to form explanations of everyday events. B) cognitive development is largely due to increases in information-processing capacity. C) the child and the social environment collaborate to build cognition in culturally adaptive ways. D) by acting directly on the environment, children construct virtually all their knowledge about the world.

A) children draw on innate concepts to form explanations of everyday events.

Core knowledge theorists disagree with Piaget's ideas and argue that A) infants begin life with innate, special-purpose knowledge systems. B) cognitive development originates with sensorimotor reflexes. C) development occurs in stages with little variations across domains. D) development is primarily a matter of cultural and social influences.

A) infants begin life with innate, special-purpose knowledge systems.

The most important illogical feature of preoperational thought is A) irreversibility. B) egocentrism. C) magical thinking. D) conservation.

A) irreversibility

Vygotsky regarded make-believe play as a major source of cognitive development because it __________ in which children advance themselves. A) is a zone of proximal development B) fosters intersubjectivity C) promotes cooperative learning D) provides opportunities for private speech

A) is a zone of proximal development

According to the core knowledge perspective, physical and numerical knowledge A) permitted our ancestors to secure food and other resources from the environment. B) does not emerge until children start formal schooling. C) helps children understand people as agents who have mental states that influence their behavior. D) helps children understand certain bodily processes, such as birth, growth, illness, and death.

A) permitted our ancestors to secure food and other resources from the environment.

Critics of Vygotsky argue that his theory __________ in advancing cognitive development. A) says little about biological contributions B) overemphasizes the importance of children's independent efforts C) assumes a set of experiences common to all cultures D) underemphasizes the significance of teaching

A) says little about biological contributions

In Western societies, the role of equipping children with the skills they need to become competent workers is assigned to A) school. B) parents. C) mentors. D) vocational programs.

A) school.

According to Vygotsky, infants are endowed with basic perceptual, attention, and memory capacities that they share with other animals. These develop during the first two years through A) stimulating interactions with adults. B) direct contact with the environment. C) the biological unfolding of genetic structures. D) independent exploration of the environment.

A) stimulating interactions with adults

Vygotsky believed that learning takes place A) within the zone of proximal development. B) in discrete stages. C) primarily through independent exploration. D) once children are capable of mental representation.

A) within the zone of proximal development

Which of the following statements is true regarding cooperative learning? A) The extent to which children achieve independence is key to fostering cooperative learning. B) For cooperative learning to succeed, Western children usually require extensive guidance. C) A single peer interaction is more beneficial than interactions with multiple peers. D) Children's problem solving improves most when their peer partner has equal expertise on the task.

B) For cooperative learning to succeed, Western children usually require extensive guidance.

Which of the following would signal to Christie, a toddler, that her mother is engaging in make-believe play with her? A) She smiles less and is more serious with Christie. B) She uses more "we" talk than she would during the same real-life event. C) She always waits for the cues to come from Christie before participating in make-believe play with Christie. D) She rarely offers any cues, and so Christie has to learn on her own when her mother is pretending and when she is not.

B) She uses more "we" talk than she would during the same real-life event.

Based on Piaget's view of children's private speech, which of the following statements is true? A) Both Tatiana and her parents engage in private speech. B) Taylor's cognitive development and certain social experiences will bring an end to his private speech. C) As Carolina internalizes the perspective of others, she will begin to engage in private speech. D) Kaz's social speech declines in favor of egocentric speech, in which he adapts what he says to his listeners.

B) Taylor's cognitive development and certain social experiences will bring an end to his private speech.

The capacity for __________ distinguishes the formal operational stage from the concrete operational stage. A) conservation B) abstract thinking C) analogical problem solving D) dual representation

B) abstract thinking

Research on private speech suggests that young children A) are more likely to talk to themselves when tasks are too hard. B) are more likely to talk to themselves when tasks are appropriately challenging. C) talk to themselves because they have difficulty taking the perspective of others. D) with learning and behavior problems rarely use private speech.

B) are more likely to talk to themselves when tasks are appropriately challenging.

In her classroom, Kim and small groups of students take turns leading dialogues on the content of various texts. This is an example of A) cooperative learning. B) reciprocal teaching. C) scaffolding. D) guided participation.

B) reciprocal teaching

According to Vygotsky, which of the following would be within a child's zone of proximal development? A) Edward is completing a homework assignment with a classmate. B) Elise recently mastered a task independently following the assistance of her mother. C) Jasira cannot yet handle a specific task on her own, but she can do it with the help of an adult. D) Tevan figures out how to accomplish a task through trial and error.

C) Jasira cannot yet handle a specific task on her own, but she can do it with the help of an adult.

Lester has learned how to give his dog a bath all by himself from helping his mother give the dog a bath in the past. Lester has learned this skill through A) cooperative learning. B) intersubjectivity. C) guided participation. D) scaffolding.

C) guided participation.

Baby Raja accidentally pushes over a tower of blocks. Each time his sister rebuilds the tower, Raja tries to push it over. In Piaget's theory, this is an example of a __________ circular reaction. A) reflexive B) primary C) secondary D) tertiary

C) secondary

Elementary and middle school students exposed to reciprocal teaching A) tend to experience more conflict and competition. B) have dramatically higher IQ scores than children exposed to traditional methods. C) show impressive gains in reading comprehension. D) are often overly dependent on adults.

C) show impressive gains in reading comprehension

Piaget's belief that infants and young children must act on the environment to revise their thinking is A) widely accepted by contemporary researchers. B) too broad a notion of how learning takes place. C) too narrow a notion of how learning takes place. D) a major contribution to early intervention research.

C) too narrow a notion of how learning takes place.

Children in Western nations typically acquire conservation of number, mass, and liquid sometime between __________ years and of weight between __________ years. A) 2 and 3; 5 and 6 B) 4 and 6; 7 and 9 C) 6 and 7; 8 and 10 D) 8 and 10; 11 and 12

C)6 and 7; 8 and 10

Anthony has a learning disability. Which of the following statements is most likely true about Anthony? A) Anthony's private speech is an indication of unhealthy egocentric behavior. B) Anthony's use of self-guiding private speech during a challenging activity will not lead to better task performance. C) Anthony's private speech will only be as good as his communication skills with others. D) Anthony uses private speech to help compensate for impairments in cognitive processing.

D) Anthony uses private speech to help compensate for impairments in cognitive processing.

In Vygotsky's theory, when two participants to a task each adjust to the perspective of the other in order to create common ground for communication, they are A) engaging in scaffolding, but only at a verbal level. B) engaging in reciprocal teaching. C) stepping outside each other's zone of proximal development. D) contributing to cognitive development through intersubjectivity.

D) contributing to cognitive development through intersubjectivity.

Core knowledge theorists view development as A) simply refining already advanced knowledge systems. B) following a strict, stagewise progression. C) a sociocultural phenomenon. D) domain-specific and uneven.

D) domain-specific and uneven

Make-believe play is a major means through which children A) develop and refine representational schemes. B) learn about prejudice and the differences among different racial and ethnic groups. C) learn language and its more subtle nuances. D) extend their cognitive skills and learn about important activities in their culture.

D) extend their cognitive skills and learn about important activities in their culture

Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky believed that A) language often distracts children from thinking about mental activities and behavior. B) egocentric speech interferes with children's attempts at constructing knowledge. C) children discover virtually all knowledge about the world through their own activity. D) language provides the foundation for all higher cognitive processes.

D) language provides the foundation for all higher cognitive processes

Two-year-old Maya is building a block tower. Her father begins by pointing to where each block needs to go as Maya piles them up. As Maya's competence with the task increases, her father gradually withdraws support. This is an example of A) transitive inference. B) cooperative learning. C) reciprocal teaching. D) scaffolding.

D) scaffolding.

criticism of both the core knowledge perspective and Piaget's theory focuses on A) how they ignore children's independent efforts to construct knowledge. B) their inability to explain how heredity and environment jointly produce cognitive change. C) how they underestimate the cognitive competencies of children and adolescents. D) their inability to account for or explain stagewise change.

D) their inability to account for or explain stagewise change

In which of the following situations of cooperative learning would children learn best? A) when children have first been trained in make-believe play B) when adults provide structured lessons C) when groups have more than three children D) when their peer partner is an "expert"

D) when their peer partner is an "expert"

Before about 9 months of age, how are babies likely to treat a picture of a person or an object? A) They touch or manipulate the picture in ways that reveal confusion about the picture's real nature. B) They do not seem to have difficulty distinguishing between the symbol and the referent. C) They use it as a tool to modify an existing mental representation. D) They treat it as a symbol.

A) They touch or manipulate the picture in ways that reveal confusion about the picture's real nature.

Elena can mentally represent her neighborhood and describe the space to others. Elena's mental representation of her neighborhood is known as A) a cognitive map. B) propositional thought. C) reasoning by analogy. D) an organized route of travel.

A) a cognitive map

Two-year-old Viola calls her father's swimming goggles "water glasses." According to Piaget's theory, Viola is most likely A) accommodating. B) assimilating. C) organizing. D) equilibrating.

A) accommodating`

Researchers in diverse theories continue to draw inspiration from Piaget's view of the child as a(n) A) tabula rasa. B) active, constructive learner. C) passive learner. D) social being.

B) active, constructive learner

Melissa and Anjay are both 12 years old. Melissa is from the United States, and Anjay is from India. When asked to draw a map of their neighborhood, Melissa's map will show __________ than Anjay's map. A) a richer array of landmarks and aspects of social life B) a smaller area surrounding her home C) a more formal, extended space, highlighting main streets and key directions D) fewer features that are actually helpful in providing directions for other people

C) a more formal, extended space, highlighting main streets and key directions

In one study, an experimenter hid a poker chip in her hand and asked adolescents to evaluate the truthfulness of the following statement: "The chip in my hand is green and it is not green." An adolescent who is capable of propositional thought would most likely answer that this statement is A) always false, regardless of the color of the poker chip. B) false only if the poker chip is not green. C) true if the poker chip is green. D) always true, regardless of the color of the poker chip.

A) always false, regardless of the color of the poker chip

Some investigators have concluded that the forms of logic required by Piagetian tasks A) are heavily influenced by training, context, and cultural conditions. B) emerge spontaneously during middle childhood. C) emerge spontaneously during adolescence. D) show little variation worldwide.`

A) are heaviliy influenced by training, context, and cultural conditions

Children use current schemes to interpret their world in the process of __________, whereas __________ allows them to create new schemes or adjust old ones after noticing that their current way of thinking does not capture the environment completely A) assimilation; accommodation B) adaptation; organization C) adaptation; assimilation D) equilibration; organization

A) assimilation; accommodation

According to Piaget, children who pass class inclusion tasks A) can focus on relations between a general and two specific categories at the same time. B) have the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse them. C) can order items along a quantitative dimension. D) are able to recognize more than five separate and distinct categories of items.

A) can focus on relations between a general and two specific categories at the same time

Preschoolers' understanding that sugar continues to exist when it is dissolved in water is evidence that they A) can overcome appearances and think logically in familiar contexts. B) can think logically even about unfamiliar topics. C) are incapable of logical thought, as Piaget asserted. D) do not understand cause-and-effect relationships.

A) can overcome appearancs and think logically in familiar contexts

According to Piaget, a form of egocentrism emerges during the formal operational stage in which adolescents have difficulty A) distinguishing their own and others' perspectives. B) with day-to-day decision making. C) comparing the merit of their accomplishments with that of others. D) establishing a sense of self that is independent from their parents.

A) distinguishing their own and others' perscpective

In Piaget's theory, children move through four stages A) during which their exploratory behaviors transform into logical and abstract intelligence. B) not always in a sequential manner, depending on the children's innate intelligence. C) sequentially at a rate observed in children everywhere. D) in which different cognitive skills follow unique courses of development.

A) during which their exploratory behaviors transform into logical and abstract intelligence.

According to Piaget, 4-year-olds cannot solve a conservation-of-liquid problem because they A) focus on the height of the water, failing to realize that changes in width compensate for the changes in height. B) do not notice the difference in appearance between the water levels in the two glasses. C) have limited experience with the task materials. D) do not understand the point of the question, "Which glass holds more water?"

A) focus on the height of the water, failing to realize that changes in width compensate for the changes in height.

Once young people enter the formal operational stage, they are able to systematically isolate and combine variables to see which of these inferences are confirmed in the real world through A) hypothetico-deductive reasoning. B) animistic thinking. C) transitive inference. D) analogical problem solving.

A) hypothetico-deductive reasoning

Preschoolers seem to use __________ when they must grapple with unfamiliar topics, too much information, or contradictory facts that they cannot reconcile. A) illogical reasoning B) mental representation C) analogical problem solving D) logical thought

A) illogical reasoning

Jae-Sun is a toddler growing up in Korea where children learn a language in which object names are often omitted from sentences. For that reason, he will most likely develop object-grouping skills __________-speaking counterparts. A) later than his English B) earlier than his English C) at about the same time as his English D) earlier than his Spanish

A) later than his English

Research conducted on schooled and nonschooled children in the Jimi Valley of Papua New Guinea indicates that A) nonrepresentational scribbles seem to be a universal beginning in drawing. B) schooled children include fewer details in their drawings than nonschooled children. C) early drawings of the human figure produced by nonschooled children emphasize the head and face over the hands and feet. D) schooling has minimal impact on children's first representational shapes and forms.

A) nonrepresentational scribbles seem to be a universal beginning in drawing

Infants in Substage 5 A) repeat behaviors with variations. B) become skilled at reaching for and manipulating objects. C) use their capacity for intentional behavior to try to change events. D) arrive at solutions to problems suddenly rather than through trial-and-error behavior.

A) repeat behaviors with variations.

Research on formal operational thought indicates that 6-year-olds A) show signs of hypothetico-deductive reasoning on tasks that involve simplified situations. B) display hypothetico-deductive reasoning only when assisted by an adult. C) only display hypothetico-deductive reasoning during pretend play. D) are capable of abstract thinking when presented with real-world problems.

A) show signs of hypothetico-deductive reasoning on tasks that involve simplified situations.

By the time children reach age 4 or 5, they combine their play schemes with those of peers by creating and coordinating roles in A) sociodramatic play. B) adult-directed play acting. C) secondary circular reactions. D) categorization of others' intentions.

A) sociodramatic play

When Baby Carissa "stumbles" onto a new experience, such as making a mobile hanging over her crib move by kicking her feet, engaging in that activity repeatedly will A) strengthen Carissa's response and create a new scheme. B) provide Carissa with entertainment until she is better able to explore her world. C) lead to the refinement of reflexive schemes. D) facilitate cognitive equilibrium.

A) strengthen Carissa's response and create a new scheme.

In Piaget's theory, primary circular reactions are oriented toward __________, whereas secondary circular reactions are oriented toward __________. A) the infant's own body; the surrounding world B) involuntary actions; voluntary actions C) external actions; internal representations D) concrete thought; abstract thought

A) the infant's own body; the surrounding world

In Piaget's theory, primary circular reactions are oriented toward __________, whereas secondary circular reactions are oriented toward __________. A) the infant's own body; the surrounding world B) involuntary actions; voluntary actions C) external actions; internal representations D) concrete thought; abstract thought

A) the infants own body; the surrounding world

People are most likely to think abstractly and systematically on tasks in which A) they have had extensive guidance and practice in using such reasoning. B) hypothetico-deductive reasoning is not required. C) the rules of logical thought can be ignored. D) logical necessity is required.

A) they have had extensive guidance and practice in using such reasoning.

Recent ethnographic research reveals that A) young Yucatec Mayan children decide for themselves how much to sleep and eat, what to wear, when to bathe, and when to start school. B) Yucatec Mayan children and Western children display impressive similarities in their make-believe play, despite very different cultural and social conditions. C) in cultures where parents rarely scaffold their children's learning, children tend to be delayed in early cognitive skills. D) in cultures where parents rarely converse with their children, children tend to frequently display attention-getting behaviors.

A) young Yucatec Mayan children decide for themselves how much to sleep and eat, what to wear, when to bathe, and when to start school

Evidence confirms that, when making decisions, adolescents, relative to adults, are A) less willing to take risks. B) more influenced by the possibility of immediate reward. C) more apt to seek advice from others. D) more likely to learn from feedback by revising their decision-making strategies.

B) more influenced by the possibility of immediate reward.

Baby Lakota is shown a ball that is then hidden under a cover. What must Lakota do to retrieve the ball? A) Lakota will need to recall the location of the ball. B) Lakota must coordinate "pushing aside" and "grasping" schemes to retrieve the ball. C) Lakota will not be able to retrieve the ball until she is in Substage 6 of the sensorimotor period. D) Lakota will have trouble retrieving the ball until she no longer makes the A-not-B error.

B) Lakota must coordinate "pushing aside" and "grasping" schemes to retrieve the ball.

Which of the following behaviors is characteristic of infants in Piaget's sensorimotor Substage 2? A) a baby who drops toys down the steps in varying ways B) a baby who accidentally makes a smacking noise while eating and later tries to reproduce the sound C) a baby who can push aside a cover to retrieve a hidden toy D) a baby who accidentally hits a toy hung in front of her and then tries to repeat this effect

B) a baby who accidentally makes a smacking noise while eating and later tries to reproduce the sound

When 3-year-old Gwen explains that her bicycle is sad because it is alone in the garage, she is demonstrating A) analogical problem solving. B) animistic thinking. C) hypothetico-deductive reasoning. D) propositional thought.

B) animistic thinking

Baillargeon's violation-of-expectation studies provided evidence that infants have some knowledge of object permanence A) between 1 1⁄2 and 2 1⁄2 months. B) between 2 1⁄2 and 3 1⁄2 months. C) no earlier than 6 months. D) after 12 months.

B) between 2 1⁄2 and 3 1⁄2 months.

During a __________ task, 4-year-old Vanessa is asked whether there are more oranges or fruits in a group of two apples, three bananas, and five oranges. She will most likely say that there are more __________. A) class inclusion; fruits B) class inclusion; oranges C) conservation-of-number; fruits D) conservation-of-number; oranges

B) class inclusion; oranges

Toddlers in Substage 6 of the sensorimotor period can solve object-permanence problems involving invisible displacement because they have developed the capacity to A) engage in goal-directed behavior. B) construct mental representations. C) carry out means-end action sequences. D) understand dual representation.

B) construct mental representations.

During a conservation-of-water problem, Wanda recognizes that a change in the height of the water is compensated for by a change in its width. This example demonstrates that Wanda is capable of A) seriation. B) decentration. C) reversibility. D) hypothetico-deductive reasoning.

B) decentration

Based on habituation and recovery research, Dahlia's parents know that between 6 and 12 months old, Dahlia will be able to A) only sort items into one or two basic categories, such as animals and people. B) group objects into an impressive array of categories like food items, furniture, birds, animals, kitchen utensils, and spatial location. C) organize her physical world but not yet categorize her emotional and social worlds. D) sort familiar and novel items based on color, size, shape, and function.

B) group objects into an impressive array of categories like food items, furniture, birds, animals, kitchen utensils, and spatial location.

In the violation-of-expectation method, __________ suggests that Baby Will is "surprised" by a deviation from physical reality. A) a lack of attention and unfocused behavior B) heightened attention to the unexpected event C) smiling rather than crying D) quick recovery to a familiar event

B) heightened attention to the unexpected event

__________ helps explain the long hours adolescents spend inspecting every detail of their appearance and why they are so sensitive to public criticism. A) Propositional thought B) The imaginary audience C) Abstract thought D) Hierarchical classification

B) imaginary audience

One neo-Piagetian perspective combines Piaget's stage approach with A) ecological systems theory. B) information processing. C) behaviorism. D) the core knowledge perspective.

B) information processing

The capacity to use __________ as a flexible symbolic tool improves from the end of the second into the third year. A) make-believe B) language C) deferred imitation D) the circular reaction

B) language

Research indicates that amount of TV viewing is negatively related to 8- to 18-month-olds' A) motor development. B) language process. C) analogical problem solving. D) visual development.

B) language process

In Piaget's theory, the most powerful __________ are __________ and __________. A) schemes; categorization; hierarchical classification B) mental representations; images; concepts C) operations; hypothetico-deductive reasoning; logical necessity D) cognitive skills; private speech; propositional thought

B) mental representations; images; concepts

When his friend's mom asks him if he wants a ride home from baseball practice, Pele gives her directions using a __________ that helps him imagine the mom's movements along the route she needs to take between the baseball field and Pele's house. A) conservation technique B) "mental walk" strategy C) "decentration" method D) transitive inference strategy

B) mental walk strategy

Children in the concrete operational stage A) can think logically when dealing with abstract information. B) move along a continuum of acquisition of logical concepts. C) master Piaget's concrete operational tasks all at once. D) continue to fail conservation tasks.

B) move along a continuum of acquistion of logical concepts

Research on the development of make-believe play indicates that A) girls spend more time in sociodramatic play than boys. B) preschoolers who devote more time to sociodramatic play are seen as more socially competent by their teachers. C) school-age children are more self-centered in their pretend play than preschoolers. D) preschoolers who create imaginary companions are at risk for maladjustment.

B) preschoolers who devote more time to socio dramatic play are seen as more socially competent by their teachers

Petra is an average 10-year-old. Research indicates that Petra A) is egocentric in her social relationships. B) provides clear directions and constructs well-organized cognitive maps. C) is in Piaget's formal operational stage. D) grasps the logical necessity of propositional thought.

B) provides clear directions and constructs well-organized cognitive maps

According to Piaget, preschoolers' thinking is A) flexible. B) rigid. C) abstract. D) nonverbal.

B) rigid

According to Piaget's theory, during periods of rapid cognitive change, children A) shift from accommodation to assimilation. B) shift from assimilation to accommodation. C) equally balance assimilation and accommodation. D) are in a state of cognitive equilibrium.

B) shift from assimilation to accommodation.

In Piaget's theory, adaptation refers to A) the back-and-forth movement between equilibration and disequilibration. B) the process of building schemes through direct interaction with the environment. C) a rearrangement and linking together of schemes. D) a steady, comfortable cognitive state.

B) the process of building schemes through direct interaction with the environment.

Preschoolers' impressive skill at categorization is supported by A) animistic thinking. B) their rapidly expanding vocabularies. C) egocentric tendencies. D) the use of magical thinking for events they cannot explain.

B) their rapidly expanding vocabularies

In Piaget's theory, when children are in a state of disequilibrium, A) their schemes become disorganized and development is temporarily stalled. B) they realize that new information does not match their current schemes. C) they are likely to construct inefficient schemes. D) their existing schemes are not likely to change very much.

B) they realize that new information does not match their current schemes`

Adolescents are able to ponder the concepts of justice and freedom because they have developed A) a moral code. B) verbal reasoning about abstract concepts. C) idealism and egocentric decision making. D) the ability to delay gratification.

B) verbal reasoning about abstract concepts

Piaget's theory is described as a constructivist approach because he A) stressed the social and cultural contributions to children's thinking. B) viewed children as discovering virtually all knowledge about their world through their own activity. C) emphasized how genetic and environmental factors combine to yield more complex ways of thinking. D) believed that children construct knowledge through adult training and modeling.

B) viewed children as discovering virtually all knowledge about their world through their own activity.

Ten-year-old Delaney is helping her dad put new shingles on her playhouse in the backyard. Her dad asks her to put the shingles in order from longest to shortest so that he can vary the start of each row. She is able to do this because she A) can think abstractly. B) can perform seriation tasks. C) understands dual representation. D) understands conservation.

B)can perform seriation tasks

Which of the following approaches is likely to be seen in a Vygotskian classroom? A) opportunities for active participation B) an emphasis on teacher-directed instruction C) activities developed to foster peer collaboration D) learning experiences designed to promote independent exploration

C) activities developed to foster peer collaboration

Baby Henry enters Piaget's Substage 4 of the sensorimotor period when his schemes A) are directed toward his body. B) are repeated with variation to produce new outcomes. C) are coordinated deliberately to solve simple problems. D) represent sudden solutions rather than trial-and-error solutions.

C) are coordinated deliberately to solve simple problems.

According to Piaget, when children first mentally represent the world, they A) exhibit thinking that is unlimited and flexible. B) are adept at forming mental representations of actions that obey logical rules. C) assume that others perceive, think, and feel the same way they do. D) are especially adept at distinguishing other people's symbolic viewpoints from their own.

C) assume that others perceive, think, and feel the same way they do.

When 4-year-old Leela wished for her grandmother to come and visit, and the very next day her grandmother arrived at Leela's house, Leela believed it was A) because her grandmother knew every thought Leela had. B) nothing out of the ordinary. C) because magic accounts for events she cannot otherwise explain. D) a special power that only Leela has.

C) because magic accounts for events she cannot otherwise explain

By the end of the first year, infants A) use language to acquire new information about an absent object. B) use pictures as vehicles for communicating with others and acquiring new knowledge. C) begin to use an object that already has an obvious use as a symbol for another object. D) form flexible mental representations of how to use tools to get objects.

C) begin to use an object that already has an obvious use as a symbol for another object.

Some critics of the violation-of-expectation method A) believe that it indicates a conscious awareness of physical events rather than a limited understanding. B) argue that wide individual differences in recovery times exist. C) believe that it indicates limited, implicit awareness of physical events rather than conscious understanding. D) argue that it is an inappropriate task to use with very young infants.

C) believe that it indicates limited, implicit awareness of physical events rather than conscious understanding.

Five-year-old Sasha is participating in Piaget's three-mountains problem. When Sasha is asked to choose the picture that shows what the display looks like from the doll's perspective, he will most likely A) choose the correct picture, but not be able to explain why he chose that picture. B) know that the correct picture is different from his point of view, but not be sure which picture to choose. C) choose the picture that shows his own point of view. D) choose the correct picture and be able to explain why he chose that picture.

C) choose the picture that shows his own point of view

Piaget's famous __________ demonstrates preoperational children's difficulty with __________. A) three-mountains problem; dual representation B) three-mountains problem; hierarchical classification C) class inclusion task; hierarchical classification D) class inclusion task; dual representation

C) class inclusion task; hierarchical classification

Miss Caroline, a teacher who uses Piagetian principles in her classroom, A) provides extensive instruction in reading and mathematics. B) pairs low-ability students with high-ability students to enhance learning. C) encourages her students to discover for themselves through spontaneous interaction with their environment. D) forms cooperative groups with two to four students who take turns leading dialogues.

C) encourages her students to discover for themselves through spontaneous interaction with their environment.

Mara is 10 months of age. Research suggests that Mara can A) engage in sociodramatic play. B) imitate novel behaviors. C) engage in analogical problem solving. D) appreciate the symbolic nature of pictures.

C) engage in alalogical problem solving

In making decisions, adolescents, more often than adults, A) ignore well-learned intuitive judgments. B) seek advice from parents or other trusted adults. C) fall back on well-learned intuitive judgments. D) weigh the pros and cons of possible outcomes.

C) fall back on well-learned intuitive judgments.

During a study, the experimenter tells Kerri, "Either the swan is black or it is not black." Even though Kerri has never seen a black swan, she judges this statement to be true. This is because Kerri A) cannot yet conserve. B) is making an A-not-B error. C) is engaging in propositional thought. D) is egocentric.

C) is engaging in propositional thought

When infants are tested to discover whether they understand the concept of object permanence and are shown two events—one expected and one unexpected—the infants A) show no awareness that the events differ from one another. B) ignore the unexpected event. C) look longer at the unexpected event than the expected event. D) show a preference for the expected event.

C) look longer at the unexpected event than the expected event.

Opportunities to seriate objects, to learn about order relations, and to remember the parts of complex problems are probably responsible for A) the development of the imaginary audience. B) improvements in decision-making strategies. C) mastery of Piagetian tasks. D) advanced abstract thinking.

C) mastery of piagetian task

Vygotsky emphasized __________ for preschool children, and then shifting to __________ once formal schooling begins. A) independent discovery learning; social context and collaboration B) rote memory; make-believe play and reading C) meaningful activities in children's zones of proximal development; literacy activities D) a basic skills approach; scaffolding

C) meaningful activities in children's zones of proximal development; literacy activities

Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage into six substages based on A) anecdotal evidence provided by hundreds of parents. B) rigorous laboratory experiments with young children. C) observations of his three children. D) his research with children in French orphanages.

C) observations of his three children

Baby Pedro has combined his reaching, grasping, and sucking schemes into one higher-order scheme that allows him to reach for his pacifier and put it into his mouth to suck. In Piaget's theory, this achievement is an example of A) accommodation. B) assimilation. C) organization. D) adaptation.

C) organization

A hallmark of the concrete operational stage is the ability to A) understand dual representation. B) participate in sociodramatic play. C) pass conservation tasks. D) engage in animistic thinking.

C) pass conservation tasks.

Toddlers' ability to represent others' intentions A) occurs later than Piaget predicted. B) requires the refinement of reflexive schemes. C) seems to have roots in earlier sensorimotor activity. D) leads to gains in categorization.

C) seems to have roots in earlier sensorimotor activity.

According to Piaget, tertiary circular reactions include A) the ability to find a hidden object that has been moved while out of sight. B) deferred imitation and private speech. C) the ability to search in several locations for a hidden object. D) make-believe play and social speech.

C) the ability to search in several locations for an object

In Piaget's theory, infants are unable to mentally represent experience until about _____ months of age. A) 3 B) 9 C) 12 D) 18

D) 18

Three-year-old Dominic calls his toy robot Sam and talks to him as if Sam is another 3-year-old. What explanation do researchers give for Dominic's behavior? A) Dominic actually believes that the robot is alive. B) Dominic believes that all people and objects think the same thoughts that he thinks. C) Dominic cannot distinguish between animate and inanimate objects. D) Dominic has incomplete knowledge about certain objects, including his toy robot.

D) Dominic has incomplete knowledge about certain objects, including his toy robot.

__________ and __________ are the two landmark cognitive changes that take place in sensorimotor Substage 4 of Piaget's theory. A) Deferred imitation; make-believe play B) Conservation; centration C) Dual representation; analogical problem solving D) Intentional behavior; object permanence

D) Intentional behavior; object permanence

Research indicates that children's cognitive immaturity A) results from overstimulation during infancy and toddlerhood. B) results from a lack of stimulation. C) hinders their mastery of basic academic skills. D) may be adaptive.

D) May be adpative

Which of the following statements is true regarding the consequences of abstract thought? A) Sense of personal uniqueness eliminates sensitivity to criticism. B) Sense of omnipotence is moderately associated with depression and suicidal thinking. C) The imaginary audience discourages independence from parents. D) The imaginary audience helps teenagers maintain important relationships.

D) The imaginary audience helps teenagers maintain important relationships.

Which of the following helps to explain why preoperational children's thinking keeps them from being able to understand the idea of conservation? A) They tend to spend too much time on reversibility, or mentally reversing the steps in a problem back to the starting point. B) They tend to focus more on the dynamic transformation of a situation without giving adequate attention to beginning and ending states. C) They have a significant grasp on the idea that appearances can change without changing the fundamental characteristics of the situation. D) Their understanding is characterized by centration in which they focus on one aspect of the situation while ignoring other important features.

D) Their understanding is characterized by centration in which they focus on one aspect of the situation while ignoring other important features.

In watching two children, Wiley, who is in the concrete operational stage, and Abby, who is in the formal operational stage, solve Piaget's pendulum problem, what difference would be evident? A) Both Wiley and Abby will use similar strategies to solve the problem. B) Wiley will systematically test alternative hypotheses. C) Abby will intuitively solve the problem without experimentation. D) Abby will systematically test alternative hypotheses.

D) abby will systematically test alternative hyptheses

As a result of adolescents' ability to engage in __________, they often construct grand visions of a perfect world that are at odds with adults' more realistic views. A) hypothetico-deductive reasoning B) propositional thinking C) animistic thinking D) abstract thinking

D) abstract thinking

Initially, infants respond to videos of people A) as make-believe characters. B) in a fearful manner. C) with indifference, paying little attention to the characters. D) as if viewing people directly.

D) as if viewing people directly

When 18-month-old James is given peas for the first time, he picks one up, throws it, and says "ball." According to Piaget's theory, James is most likely __________ the pea into his ball scheme. A) accommodating B) organizing C) equilibrating D) assimilating

D) assimilating

Children's ability to draw a map of a large-scale space improves with age due to A) their ability to reason by analogy. B) gains in fine-motor development. C) an increase in spatial cognition. D) better perspective-taking skills.

D) better perspective taking skills

Between 25 and 45 percent of preschoolers and young school-age children spend much time in solitary make-believe, A) avoiding contact with adults or peers. B) which interferes in their ability to form friendships. C) which is a sign of maladjustment. D) creating imaginary companions.

D) creating imaginary companions

In one study, 21⁄2-year-olds were unable to use a scale model of a room to find a toy hidden in the room that the model represented. This is because young preschoolers have difficulty with A) deferred imitation. B) analogical problem solving. C) transitive inference. D) dual representation.

D) dual representation

Because of __________, preschoolers are only able to draw figures in their simplest forms. A) limited adult instruction B) a lack of motivation C) an inability to form detailed mental representations D) fine-motor and cognitive limitations

D) fine-motor and cognitive limitations

In Piaget's theory, children use organization to A) build schemes through direct interaction with the environment. B) adjust old schemes and create new ones to fit with the environment. C) accommodate the back-and-forth movement between cognitive equilibration and disequilibration. D) internally rearrange and link schemes to create a strongly interconnected cognitive system.

D) internally rearrange and link schemes to create a strongly interconnected cognitive system.

Some researchers believe that before the end of the first year, babies undergo a fundamental shift from a(n) __________ basis to a(n) __________ basis for constructing categories A) logical; abstract B) perceptual; abstract C) logical; conceptual D) perceptual; conceptual

D) preceptual; conceptual

Around the first birthday, the symbolic capacity called "displaced reference" emerges, which allows toddlers to A) use abstract thought to solve problems. B) form initial mental representations that can be used to evaluate further information. C) categorize objects on the basis of their physical attributes. D) recognize that words can be used to cue mental images of things not physically present.

D) recognize that words can be used to cue mental images of things not physically present.

Baby Rina, who is still developing the expertise at motor skills necessary for the search task, is more likely to make the A-not-B search error because A) she does not yet understand object permanence. B) her short attention span prevents her from thinking beyond A. C) her reaching scheme is limited to reflexive actions. D) she has little attention left to focus on inhibiting her habitual reach toward A in favor of B.

D) she has little attention left to focus on inhibiting her habitual reach toward A in favor of B.

Baby Waldo is twisting and turning triangles, circles, and squares to fit them into his shape-sorter toy. According to Piaget, this behavior is best described as a __________ circular reaction. A) reflexive B) primary C) secondary D) tertiary

D) tertiary

Each time Mr. Chow hides 7-month-old Jana's doll under her blanket, she retrieves the toy. When Mr. Chow then hides the doll under a pillow near the blanket, Jana continues to look under the blanket for the doll. Jana is demonstrating A) the secondary circular reaction. B) habituation and recovery. C) displaced reference. D) the A-not-B search error.

D) the A-not-B search error

According to Piaget's theory, A) the disappearance of schemes marks the transition from sensorimotor to preoperational thought. B) environmental, but not genetic, factors can affect the speed with which children move through cognitive stages. C) schemes are built through interaction with adults or more skilled peers. D) two processes account for the change from sensorimotor to representational schemes.

D) two processes account for the change from sensorimotor to representational schemes.