Chapter 6: Human Behavior and Organizational Environment

3 key components of trauma-informed-care

(1) understanding the nature of trauma and how it impacts people and recognizing that many behaviors and responses that may seem ineffective and unhealthy in the present represent adaptive responses to past traumatic experiences; (2) promoting safety through establishing a physical and emotional environment where basic needs are met, safety measures are in place, and provider responses are consistent, predictable, and respectful; and (3) ensuring cultural competence so that staff understand the cultural history of the particular populations with which the agency is working

The Classic Bureaucratic Model

-what most people think of when their minds wander onto the topic of organizations -model had its genesis in the mid-19th century as the new tide of industrialism was beginning to wield its influence over Western culture -heart of industrial revolution- reliance on mechanical systems —> the machine was the metaphor for all aspects of modern life model was very hierarchical, much like a pyramid : communication flowed top to bottom Structure of org was monochromatic (one small person or group in control Frederick Winslow Taylor

Organizational Culture

"shared norms, beliefs, values, symbols, and rituals" that guide social behavior. the qualities of the overall atmosphere that makes the difference between group satisfaction and longevity and a situation of high turnover Unsustainable and Sustainable

Hierarchy, Equality, and Democratic Functioning

A sports team has to adapt to its changing environment, but sometimes the team is unable to adapt to changing circumstances and the formal leadership needs to be overthrown Functional Leadership Feminism

Neoliberal Models

Academic administration increasingly marginalize the historic role of faculty in governance - particularly as a result of the rise of a new class of university bureaucrats These people are highly-paid, upper-level administrators increasingly monitor and regulate the universities' mission, funding priorities, curricula, and faculty tenure and promotion policies. Their growth far exceeds that of tenured faculty positions. This class of non-teaching professionals oftentimes have limited educationally-specific credentials and receive disproportionately high compensation packages even when faculty salaries have been mostly stagnant over the last 30 years. Unfortunately, more management tends to lead to tighter controls + less transparency and accountability to faculty/students/the public. Poor and working class minority students are virtually excluded from any benefit associated with a college education. Poor and working class minority students are virtually excluded from any benefit associated with a college education. SW education has been historically driven by a core set of values and philosophical presuppositions involving the relief of suffering, mutual support, social change, services to the poor and marginalized, etc. These are noble, but largely disjunctive to the trajectory of the neoliberal university. There isn't as much funding from public and private sectors (compared to science, tech, engineering, and math) because SW isn't as easily reducible to the logic of entrepreneurialism. SW educators must not succumb to labels such as socialist, communist, unpatriotic, etc.

Karl Marx

Alienation in the world of work The working class seldom owns their own tools, control the working conditions, or determine the ultimate destiny of the commodities they produce. one source of alienation and tension in this mode of production is the perception and/or reality that those who make the commodities do not recoup the value of the labor that they put into the manufacture of the commodities

C. W. Mills

Alienation is a major theme of the human condition in both the classic and contemporary literature of economics and sociology.

Emile Durkheim

Alienation results from isolation in a disintegrating society, anomie (normlessness)

Max Weber

Alienation rises as a result of bureaucratic centralization and rationalization

Technology

Although office efficiency is enhanced through use of new ones, the typical worker's tieme is now spent increasingly in isolation on the computer and less in face-to-face interaction with others Forms for everything - rules about recording data online - Transfer: The forms are standardized, may not accommodate regional or ethnic differences in populations

Unsustainable Organizational Culture

An overall climate of intensity; relationships are tension-driven Keen competition and jealousy among the key players An atmosphere of almost religious loyalty to the ideals of the organization and intolerance of dissent Conflict at upper levels that leads to burnout and cynicism at lower levels Hierarchy built on favoritism and friendship rather than designated roles Intolerance of critical thinking and proposals for change

Anti-Oppressive Analysis

Anti-oppressive theory of organizations (formulated by Dominelli), provides the assessment of what she terms the "new managerialism" contrasts "people-oriented" system that relies on relationship building with the new bureaucratic imperatives of the global age. Clients "consumers" have "become incorporated into a profit-making enterprise that private entrepreneurs can exploit" traditional theories and perspectives tell us much about the formal structure of organizations and provide a framework by which we can analyze the organization within which we work Research shows that organization style relates to sustainability because open and honest communication and shared decision making are correlates of organizations that thrive and are profitable.

Facts about Trauma-Informed Care

Appreciates the high prevalence of trauma in clients For individuals with severe mental illness, the rate is as high as 97% Victims of trauma are found across all systems of care The worst place to treat trauma is jail The use of seclusion and restraints (e.g. in a juvenile institution) is a trigger for re-traumatization Restraint produces a strong emotional response and further outbursts or a complete shutting down of feeling

General Systems Models

Began to emerge in the US during the 60s & 70s, when the country was entering a new era of optimism, expansion, and growth used to construct models and conduct research on complex organizations in which the organization is viewed as an open system that interacts with the environment It is affected by the environment, and it affects the environment while maintaining its functions in proper states systems approaches to organizations focus on the integration of processes and outcomes and on the evolution of a holistic perspective on organizational structure and governance Most notable example: contingency school From this approach- there's no best way to run an org- it's all dependent on the variables that differ from the org over time (just like 2 people aren't the same, 2 orgs aren't the same) Schriver

Social Democrats

Believe that capitalism can be transformed through conflict among constituencies and aided by a progressive democratic government

Privatization

Both public and private not-for-profit organizations rely on subcontracting services out to cut costs The pressure for such county and state-level cost-cutting measures relates to funding cuts from the federal government Loss of competition for secure, full-time work

Practice Implications

Budget cuts = response to pressures from the global economy and to reductions in corporate property taxes in order to attract more business to the community. Impact = especially evident in fields that specialize in working with people (such as teaching, nursing, and SW) Staff cuts + heightened focus on productivity = fewer people doing more and more work. Burnout is common Burnout in SW is more common in public child welfare and among younger (rather than more mature) SWers. SWers need to advocate for continued funding for nonprofit orgs in the community- most are highly vulnerable to underfunding and closing if they lose public support.

Organizations that Empower

Change effort must be directed toward both large and small systems Values of self-determination, collaborative decision-making, and shared values that promote multiculturalism, social justice, and a concern for client/worker welfare all help create a supportive climate for all participants Most large social service organizations are hierarchical in nature, so persons who wish to create empowering organizations must look beyond the status quo to alternative models Developing an organizational culture that is strengths-based Sondra Doe

Walmart

Cult-like rites and rituals To keep employees spirits up, they let out cheers for the company 3 times a day High turnover, lots of class-action lawsuits (gender and race discrimination, negative press coverage Outsourcing + high employee turnover = employee loyalty to Walmart is weak as is company loyalty to its workers

Classic Views on Alienation

Defined in contemporary contexts as powerlessness, meaninglessness, normlessness, isolation, and self-estrangement Contributes to tension and stress within the individual and between social systems C. W. Mills Emile Durkheim Max Weber Karl Marx

Theory X, Theory Y, and Theory Z Leadership

Douglas McGregor William Ouchi

The Corporate Work Model

Downsizing, outsourcing, wage flexibility, cost efficiency, accountability, and productivity Walmart The Wal-Mart Wars (sociologist Rebekah Massengill) Company loyalty Interchangeable Workers, homogenization of the product, standardized work routines, and technologies The McDonalidization of Society (George Ritzer; McDonald's Model) Change in Social Work

The McDonalidization of Society (George Ritzer; McDonald's Model)

Efficient, predictable, with cheap food Companies rationalize gains in efficiency, but with greater bureaucratization, the rational becomes irrational (i.e. pre-recorded messages instead of just talking to a human)

Multiple Theoretical Perspectives on Organizations

Every organization is shaped by the environment in which it is nested Next sections will discuss several major theoretical perspectives on organizations that have been very influential in understanding our own organizational culture better The Classic Bureaucratic Model The Human Relations Model General Systems Models Nonhierarchical, or Consensual, Models

Assigned Leader

Formal authority

Empowerment

Generally conceptualized as a way of increasing power in personal, interpersonal, and poltiical spheres

The Corporation Historical Origins

How major corporations came to have so much control over American life: The corporation started out as a benign association chartered by governments to carry out public functions of limited duration but rose to become a vast economic enterprise when the 14th Amendment was interpreted to give the corporation the legal rights of a person. Capitalism is supposed to work because of competition whereby the best companies--the ones that are the most people friendly and that produce the best products for the money--win out. In the absence of tight regulation, monopolies can enforce policies to eliminate competition and name their place.

HALT

Hungry, Angry, Lonely, Tired

Youth

Internalize the materialistic goals but fail to achieve them except by violating the norms of society More alienation among the older minority youth who have entered the job market

Trauma-Informed Model for Human Service Organizations

Katherine Van Wormer Substance abuse counselors who worked in the field during the days when many counselors and agency directors were hired more on the basis of their personal experience of addiction and recovery than on professional qualifications - Often, emotions ran high among staff members in their interactions with each other and relapse was common - When the director has addiction or other personal problems, the whole network of communication patterns can become affected - Like the family, the workplace is a social system and the relationships between leaders and staff in an org parallel our original parent-child relationships Today's crisis: Leaders and their staff often lose sight of the mission and become cynical and demoralized - End result: Heightened authoritarianism by the managers and burnout of the staff - To fix it: Use an organizational model of care that is trauma-informed -- To be successful, staff must be reeducated int oa whole new way of thinking on how to reach their clients - Training is geared to help them get beyond the negative labeling, over-reliance on medication to control clients, and other forms of behavioral management Stresses the importance of a physical environment that generates a sense of safety and the creation of a social atmosphere that evokes a sense of peace and warmth -- Staff should understand the way in which trauma experiences shape survivors' responses to the services offered A traumatized person might approach agency personnel with an aloof or sarcastic manner; their defenses are up To establish trust, staff need to learn to avoid behaviors and practices that might trigger a flashback to a traumatic event Treatment centers that are trauma informed ask "What happened to you?" rather than "What's wrong with you?" Immigrant and indigenous groups: be aware of historical or generational trauma Facts about Trauma-Informed Care HALT

Style Theory

Lewin, Lippitt, and White -attempts to understand leadership by looking at the various styles of leadership that characterize certain leaders -three predominant leadership styles—> instead of looking at individual traits, made up of related traits that seemed to provide a general description of leadership that was simpler and easier to understand authoritarian leader, laissez-faire leadership, democratic leader

Change in Social Work

Many social workers work for private agencies or hospitals where the bottom line is profit instead of service Working in large-scale organizations - lack of control over the work, uniformed mandates

Dis-Organized Education: Prospects for Social Work Higher Education in a Neoliberal, Market- Driven Society

Market-driven and corporate philosophies affecting American University education especially in the humanities and social sciences Post WWII, US higher education was a model for other countries Demanded of students that they be intellectually accomplished in the arts and humanities and fully engaged in the discourse of social responsibility, critical thought, civic action and democratic accountability The end of totalitarian regimes comes with educating citizens Resist concentrated and unequal power Democracies can't last long without a well-informed and educated populace Now, public higher education is viewed by neoliberal, market fundamentalists as unnecessary and dangerous Push to transform public higher education to a private good Educated citizens will question the status quo and work to constrain capitalism Universities starting to mimic private, for-profit corporations rather than public institutions dedicated to the common good

Total Institution

Of all the types of organizations, this is the most rigid and forbidding Goffman defined it as a place in which all activities, including sleeping and eating, occur in the same place E.g. Prison, mental hospital, or convent Within such institutions, there is a split between staff and inmates, and inmates typically follow a clear "moral career." the organization controls the whole life of the resident

Leadership in Organizational Settings

One of the most neglected aspects of social work research and education is the role the leadership plays in good social work practice Canda and Furman Core Competencies of Effective Social Work Leaders of Formal Organizations Assigned and emergent leadership Hierarchy, Equality, and Democratic Functioning

Emergent Leaders

One whose influence is recognized

Sustainable Organizational Culture

Open communication at all levels of engagement Democratic decision-making coupled with organizational loyalty Members who have a shared sense of mission in what they do Camaraderie among staff members, a true sharing of joys and concerns

The Need to Create New Markets

Overproduction - workers working themselves out of a job Price cuts, layoffs, and economic depression may follow unless greater efficiency can be realized or new markets created The pressure to consume adds to the alienation already experienced in production roles Recession Marx did not believe that a welfare society could exist under capitalism because the dominance of the market would always gain precedence over the needs of the people Social Democrats Youth

Moral Career

Progresses from deprivation of the symbols of his or her former life— clothing, hairstyle, and so forth— to the possession of new symbols and a new identity in the new life.

Corporate Model of Social Work Practice

Social work is stigmatized in a society that is based on independence and inequality Norway - Social workers play an active role in shaping policy US - social workers find themselves in a more reactive than proactive role Globalization & Privatization Downsizing leads to fewer field placement opportunities Productivity Management in privatized service delivery coming from business and public administration instead of social work and other helping professions Profit-over-treatment, efficiency-over-effectiveness focus Buzzwords in social work practice: accountability, managed care, cost-effectiveness, downsizing, subcontracting, technology transfer, and evidence-based practice (EBP) The burden of welfare spending falls on individual states - Politicians (concerned with reelection) tend to vote against raising state taxes so budget cuts are inevitable at all state-funded institutions Technology

Social Worker Incognito: Empowerment Behind the Wire

Social worker works at a prison; the women she works with refer to her as "director" or "professor." She can't view her students as just students- she also has to view them as "offenders." There are limitations to freedoms of speech and action. Ex: they can't refuse the orders of authority figures / there are strict limitations on what they can do, wear, or own. Ex: She (the SW) is limited by the procedural requirements of the prison. She has to put "security" as the highest priority in her educational programming. Security is in direct opposition with self-determination. So if a student wants to present on a topic, the SW has to restrict the student from certain topics that might promote prison violence or gang activity. If a student is feeling unwell, unless the student has been formally "laid in" by the medical dept. the SW has to "call out" that student to come to class immediately. Wilson & Anderson's 5 Dimensions of Empowerment conclusion: the wire boundary that reduces the liberty of the ones the SW serves (the incarcerated students) also partially incarcerates the SW. But the SW reminds the students that "a fence is only a fence. Once we have tapped into the power of our internal wings, we are free to soar together to the remarkable heights of our own potentials."

Sondra Doe

Suggests a link between strategy-based SW values and empowerment strategies with organizations to foster an effective work and treatment environment Advocates leadership styles that is guided by a belief in the possibilities of the human spirit and egalitarian work relationships

Trait Theory

Suggests that leaders have certain personality traits that qualify them for leadership positions (referred as the great man or great person theory of leadership) It's what many of us have been accustomed to think of when we think about leadership These personality traits, or certain attitudinal and behavior qualities, include such things as unflappability, the capacity to make quick decisions, rationality, emotional stability, or analytical skills, etc Implies that great leaders are born and not created and that they are somehow destined to find their leadership positions. Problems : (1)- no possibility of coming up with a standard set of leadership traits that can be generalized across time and cultures; (2) these designated traits are decidedly masculine in nature

The Wal-Mart Wars (sociologist Rebekah Massengill)

Talks about the moral strategies company representatives and critics use Rely on emotional strategies to make their case They personify Walmart - the business is pouring its heart out or a bully

Sociological Imagination

The capacity to shift from one perspective to another— from the political to the psychological; from examination of a simple family to a comparative assessment of the national budgets of the world; from the theological school to the military establishment... . To be aware of the idea of social structure and to use it with sensibility is to be capable of tracing such linkages among a great variety of milieux.

Globalization

The dismantling of social welfare programs is consistent with capitalist incentives to force more workers onto the labor market and increase the pool for cheap labor Social service agencies operating under harsh mandates that impede protection and reduce benefits of their workers

Historical Perspectives: An Overview

The dominant ways in which humans have organized themselves to perform social and economic activities have varied in different societies and in different historical eras (e.g. hunter and gatherer vs. industrial wage workers in capitalist societies) It is in the era of industrial production that we find large-scale formal organization and bureaucracy as a dominant form of organization and a ubiquitous presence around the globe. Social work can practice at both the individual and organizational level Organizational Mission Professional ethics can deal with ethical dilemmas with dealing with families and organizations

Underlying Assumptions of Organizations from Ecosystems Theory

The organization is not an entity sui generis (entirely of itself) but rather, that it exists alongside and in connection with other agencies and organizations as part of a wider whole As humans shape organizations, so organizations shape human behavior

Transformation Process

The people who become clients are transformed, processed, or assisted in some specified manner serve a social control function for society

The Corporate Media

The political influence of this was important - to sway the public to protest the interests of the corporations, propaganda strategies are often highly sophisticated and of proven effectiveness - Once a politician is in office, corporations and the this maintain their influence -- this can be selective in what they show E.g. Following 9/11, the government at every level began to restrict the information available to the public (e.g. suspected terrorists held at Guantanamo Bay). Media didn't advertise this and followed orders of corporate owners and political advisors in the service of patriotism - Major problem in journalism today is the mergers of news organizations - All media relies on the wealthy for funding and therefore tends to be skewed to please donors - Because of our capitalist society, mass advertising sells not only particular products but also attitudes and a way of life

Managed Care and Evidence-Based Practice

The values of the powerful get imposed upon service providers and recipients Neoliberalization (relies on the individual, sovereignty of the market and profits, privatization of public goods, rigid oversight and enforcement of the market, and the redistribution of and wealth upward to the ruling elite) Disinvestment in social services The services that do remain are overseen and controlled by a new managerial class or third-party providers

The Need for Tighter Regulations

There has been much criticism in the printed media and left-wing radio talk shows has been leveled against corporate indulgence and how big banks and credit card companies get away with deceptive practices and overcharges

The Corporation

Thom Hartmann critiqued American capitalism saying our democratic system is threatened in light of shortsighted policies and the unregulated reign of free market politics. Many social workers work in corporations such as hospitals or private treatment centers or in employee assistance programs under contract private businesses. Main effect of corporate influence ties in with gov. policy: minimal government funding for social welfare programming but maximum benefits for the business community including military industrial complex. Historical Origins The Corporate Media

Recession

Unemployment for some Stress, anxiety, sense of losing control over one's life Devastating to those most vulnerable

Canda and Furman

Urge an envisioning of the helping role and its organizational context for long-term sustainability for future generations. Their vision is of a spiritually sensitive administration, the mission and productivity goals of which would be designed primarily to serve the goals of personal well being of clients and staff in the interests of social justice

Trauma-Informed Care

When a program takes the step to become this, every part of its org must be assessed and modified based on an awareness of the centrality of trauma in the mental health field Ecological - can be understood within an ecosystems framework in that the focus is on interventions directed toward the org or environment Guarino, Soares, et al: 3 key components of trauma-informed-care

Introduction

Workers compete with workers across the globe, and companies struggle to survive in what has been called the "third industrial revolution"

Goffman

Your image of organizations depends on whether your perspective is from the outside looking in (front stage) or from the inside looking out (back stage)

Leadership

a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal

Theory y

assumed that people want to accept responsibility for their life and their work - people are willing to learn, experience change, and to work toward a common task people have the capacity for self-direction, self-growth, independence, self- determination, and self-reliance leaders tend to be optimistic, flexible, growth-oriented, open to new information and strategies, and nonauthoritarian

Theory x

average human has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it - Individuals must be coerced, controlled, directed, or threatened to produce and avoid responsibility / take the route of least resistance leaders tend to be pessimistic, authoritarian, static, task-oriented, and closed to new information or new strategies

Democratic Leadership

based on a paradigm of mutuality and interrelationship in which the organization (demos) is seen as an arena in which people find & express their identity, meaning, and values priority: to support members of the demos in being active & creative agents who have the capacity to make choices about what kinds of actions or responses are necessary —> essence is to encourage as much participation on the part of the citizenry as possible Effective leaders: listen closely to staff, regard them as coworkers rather than subordinates, encourage joint decision-making, & provide strengths-based evaluative feedback\ Leaders also provide an atmosphere of empowerment for members of the demos -EMPOWER them to develop their own decision-making abilities.

Positional Theory

based on the idea that leaders are not necessarily born but are created by virtue of the positions of authority they may hold at a given time the authority and influence necessary to function as an effective leader is vested in the position or the title

Situational Theory

based on the premise that leadership is a function of the behavior of the leader in relationship to behaviors of followers, as well as to changing organizational situations leadership is adaptable and relates to the particular circumstances of the time period - based on how members are ready to be led & capable

Frederick Winslow Taylor

classic bureaucratic model of organizational structure was most effectively illustrated in his work & he developed the principles of scientific management. gave apparent scientific rigor and professional credibility to the increasingly austere and autocratic principles of organizational structure that had already been in operation for more than a quarter century —> scientific management brought optimism to the field of organizational theory The goal of scientific management was to reduce every single act to a science and thereby increase productivity Conformity rather than creativity may be emphasized

Organization

denotes structure, hierarchy, channels of communication, a working environment in which there are proper designated chains of command For smooth functioning, they are built on a designated leadership structure of hierarchy and a bureaucracy of rules and regulations

Power

determined not necessarily by authority but by influence. This means being heard by people in decision- making positions at the top

William Ouchi

developed what came to be known as a Theory Z perspective on the character of leadership & management

Schriver

draws on the work of Shafritz & Ott- to suggest nine characteristics of contingent systems as they apply to organizations 1. Importation of Energy : Organizations must bringin energy from the external environment in the form of material and human resources. Organizations are neither self-sufficient nor self-contained. Throughput: Organizations use their energy to produce products or services. Output: Organizations send products or services into the environment. Systems as Cycles of Events: The pattern of energy exchange that results in output is cyclical. An organization takes in raw materials (energy),uses them to produce a product or service (throughput), and returns that product or service to the environment (output) in exchange for money to purchase additional raw materials with which to begin the process over again Negative Entropy: stave off energy loss and decay is also known as entropy. Every organization tends to break down and decay over time. Without concerted and timely effort to slow entropy, organizations will deteriorate. Synergy is the process whereby an organization uses some of the energy it creates in order to maintain and maximize itself. Information Input, Negative Feedback, and the Coding Process. organizations develop mechanisms to receive information on their performance and develop selective coding processes to filter out unnecessary or extraneous information that may not be useful to the organization. Steady State and Homeostasis: Organizations strive for a kind of flexible balance whereby they take in energy and information, use it, then export it back to the environment for other needed resources. This is a flexible or movable balance in the sense that it represents a continuous but dynamic state of change rather than a static condition. Differentiation: tendency of the organization to develop greater complexity & specialization of function. Equifinality: possibility of a system to attain its goals through a variety of different processes or paths.

Wilson & Anderson's 5 Dimensions of Empowerment

educational and economic: as the students work toward the goal of earning a college degree personal: most have low self-esteem → have them choose from a list of adjectives to describe their interests, views, and characteristics. social: involves a sense of group identity as a platform from which to influence mezzo and macro systems. Group identity is already well developed within the walls of a prison. → insert content from feminist and women's studies lit into the SW's course content whenever appropriate to help the students develop a group identity as women. This does 2 things: (a) places them in membership in a group that is in many ways viewed positively by society and (b) women as a group also share oppression as a commonality with offenders. political: actualized by knowledge of and participation in the democratic system. → teach the women about the political system so that when they get out, they can have an impact on it. → encourage them to vote / have them actively participate in a democratic system. ex: election for a student advisory committee.

democratic leader

focused on including everyone in the decision-making process - prizes active member participation, honest & constructive feedback, and the ability to formulate consensual decisions

Religion/Spirituality and Leadership

focused on internal, invisible traits, insights, & motivations leaders who relied solely on external motivations often experienced significant feelings of incongruity between their professional roles and their personal values —> leading to despondency & alienation, and sometimes led to addictive behaviors, obsessive preoccupations, and personality change authentic leadership came to be defined as referring to those persons who had found ways to acknowledge & integrate transpersonal values into their professional leadership responsibilities- inclusive culture with a more holistic perspective on knowledge development and transmission, as well as a more globally inspired sense of community authentic leaders who consistently modeled authenticity created a more multicultural & democratic organizational environment

Critical Perspective

goes beyond the observation and description of social conditions and transactions. This entails consciousness-raising to perceive political and economic contradictions in the society and questioning the oppressive elements in one's environment A critical view requires sensitivity to institutional racism, sexism, and classism as expressed through organizational structures A commitment to questioning how an organization fits into the wider social context is the essence of this involves viewing the problems that people have in relation to their environment and in drawing on the sources of power to which social workers in organizations have access

contingency school

his theory accepts the premise that organizations are in constant movement & vary and are contingent on a number of different factors Sees org as a system where everything is situational & where there are no absolute truths or universal principles

Company loyalty

is a thing of the past, so is the sense of responsibility to the hometown - Reich's book The Future of Success - The focus of business is on earnings, maximizing the value of the investor's shares, not on making contributions to the hometown community Corporate headquarters can be anywhere

Organizational Mission

large- scale bureaucracies exist for a purpose; Organizations have specialized roles or duties, value competencies, having offices with a hierarchical, pyramid ordering, forming rules to guide actions, taking a detached impersonal approach, using formal written communications, and selecting workers on the basis of specified qualifications who are rewarded by salary, pensions, and seniority

Hawthorne Studies

looked to analyze ways that could make organizations more efficient & rational- found that organizational members often function and exert control over organizational dynamics in ways that diverge considerably from the org goals and from what might be predicted from the principles of bureaucratic theory Found that orgs function best when managers pay positive attention to workers and when they honor the interests and expectations of the informal networks that workers create within the larger organizational structure -> has come to be known as the Hawthorne effect (where workers who were being studied increased their productivity due to the fact that they knew they were being observed)

Theory Z

looks less at the values of individual leaders & focuses on how to apply humanistic and collectivist management philosophies within the deeply ingrained individualistic orientation of modern US culture emphasize a strong homogeneous set of shared values and are drawn loosely from a traditional Japanese cultural milieu long-term employment, consensual decision-making, individual responsibility, slow evaluative processes and promotional criteria, informal control mechanisms with formalized performance measures, moderately specialized career paths, & a holistic concern for employees beyond the workplace

Managed Care

maintain quality of care while controlling the costs, restricts the choices available for treatment (may not be able to advocate for the best treatment)

Evidence-Based Practice (EBP)

model that condenses human complexity and the systemic nature of human problems to a personal deficit or individual pathology treatment outcomes limited to symptom relief, other treatments not counted as valid Used to establish social work's moral authority and professional credentialing. To establish a logical and precise foundation for practice EBP demands greater efficiency, effectiveness, and accountability while narrowing the capacity of social work theorists and practitioners in developing and utilizing inventive service delivery strategies for complex social problems and unique populations EBP is dependent on the idea that practitioners have the time, skill, and agency infrastructure to to support a rigorous search for the best available evidence Language barriers - research comes from major countries and not available in every language Not all social workers have access to scholarly databases Only about 13% of research articles are published in free and readily available open-access journals Mostly outdated The exclusion of non-evidence-based treatments means many forms of traditional therapy may lose funding in favor of easier-to-validate cognitive/behavioral strategies May be helpful but not reimbursable or funded Difficult to apply what you learned in school to the real world and to keep up to date on the most current and relevant research

Nonhierarchical, or Consensual, Models

osit an alternative to traditional models of organizational structure Consensual models assume that alternatives to hierarchy are possible in any organization primary goal of consensual organizations is to prevent or minimize the alienation that is experienced by most workers in larger, complex hierarchical organizations even traits of nonhierarchical, or consensual, organizations: Authority vested in the membership rather than in elite at the top of a hierarchy Decisions made only after issues have been widely discussed by the membership Rules kept to minimum Personal rather than formal relationships among members Leadership based on election, with rotations of leadership positions Nonfinancial reward for leadership roles No winners and losers in decision-making— decisions made based on unchallenged prevailing sentiment or consensus example routinely based on nonhierarchical principle : Japanese organizations often reflect the strong collectivist and collaborative spirit of Japanese culture, when in the West, rugged individualism and personal responsibility are prized cultural values

Core Competencies of Effective Social Work Leaders of Formal Organizations

problem-solving, flexibility, self- awareness of one's beliefs and attitudes, ability to articulate a vision and a plan, good oral and written communication skills, and knowledge of how to handle conflict and maneuver bureaucracies and complex systems, good listening skills, and sense of humor

Douglas McGregor

proposed 2 types of leadership style that were largely dependent on how the leader understood his or her subordinates' general character & how the workers viewed themselves in relationship to the work environment 1- people- oriented & 2- production-oriented : closely to so-called Theory X & Theory Y perspectives on human nature, management, and work

Productivity

push for maximum worker output with the fewest number of workers measured in terms of speed and profitability Services that are not demonstrably cost- effective (like intense field supervision) may no longer be provided

The Human Relations Model

reaction to the rationality, the machine-like character, and the alienation and disempowerment often associated with scientific management & bureaucratic theory Great Depression: mass layoffs, union strikes, and sinking consumer confidence threatened to undermine the idea that efficient, well-managed, and rational organizations were possible Human relations thinking began as a result of several seminal research studies (referred to as the Hawthorne studies) conducted by Elton Mayo & Fritz Roethlisberger at the Western Electric Company

Feminism

replaces hierarchy with equality and replaces notions of "power over" with a position of shared power. The stress on personal empowerment requires the contributions of all group members. (e.g. talking stick)

Structuration Theory (Kondat)

sees each individual in concert with others as active agents that shape, and are shaped by, social structures and institutions Interactions between the individual's identity, attitudes, behaviors, and larger economic and political systems Power is seen as the allocation of rules and resources. Individual actors construct maintain, or alter social structures, whereas those same structures shape individual action Social work research has focused on the effect of the social environment on the individual, but seldom asked how and by what mechanisms are lager structural outcomes constructed and maintained by the interactions of individuals and groups over time

Developing an organizational culture that is strengths-based

so few of these kinds of organizations exist, so organizational change is necessary - Change efforts can start with data gathering, rounding of supporters, and presentation of a proposal for change at a staff meeting - Ideas should be presented one at a time; organizers should be flexible and open to suggestions; don't invest too much power in any one individual Long, Tice, and Morrison recommend a strengths-based assessment of organization that parallels such an assessment of clients - Helps macro SWers and consumers to focus on present conditions and discover areas of concern This promotes communication at all level, including with people in the community - encourages empowerment - Ultimate goal: Give people, even those who are seemingly incompetent, more control over their lives -- New policies can be created to use in conjunction with (not on) consumers

Traditional Leadership Theories

social theorists, psychologists, management experts, and political devotees have endeavored to describe the ingredients that make for good leadership Trait Theory, Positional Theory, Situational Theory, Style Theory, Theory X, Theory Y, and Theory Z Leadership Religion/Spirituality and Leadership Democratic Leadership Putting all these theoretical perspectives on leadership together, bc organizations vary in their ideologies, goals, & organizational cultures, they select members differently—> leaders are selected according to the extent that their abilities and qualifications fit different and changing organizational situations economic crisis & period of threatened budget cuts to human service organizations— organizational leaders who will emerge will tend to be "task oriented-external." The focus on attaining external resources and improving the organization's competitive ability will be stressed over people skills

Functional Leadership

the potential for anyone in the group to be a leader; relies on the relevant expertise of individual members to pursue group goals (e.g. Alcoholics Anonymous)

Human Service Organizations

the vast array of formal organizations that have as their stated purpose enhancement of the social, emotional, physical, and/or intellectual well- being of some component of the population Examples are mental health clinics, schools, nursing homes, hospitals, and correctional institutions such as halfway houses These organizations differ from other bureaucracies in that they function within a social mandate to "serve" people and/ or to mold their behavior in some way Transformation Process Professional values and societal values conflict professionals focus on helping the client, and the society imposes restrictions on the help that is given Environmental factors such as a changing political climate and economic conditions, influence agency operations profoundly Questions raised about the relationship between social work theory and real life theory by Finn and Jacobson

authoritarian leader

very directive and non-participatory, takes personal charge of decision- making, is concerned with the instrumental needs of the organization, & demands strict compliance from subordinate

laissez-faire leadership

very non-directive and permissive and to allow subordinates to function more or less independently ; however, staff may be very uncomfortable with the perceived failure of the leader to "take charge" during protracted and/or thorny organizational problems