Chapter 7
According to social impact theory, the source's proximity in time and space to a target determines the source's a. strength. b. immediacy. c. number. d. popularity.
b
. Chart and and Bergh (1999) had experimental accomplices mimic the mannerisms of some participants but not others. They found that a. participants whose mannerisms were mimicked liked the accomplice more than participants who were not copied. b. participants whose mannerisms were copied by an accomplice reported being more uncomfortable during the interaction than those who were not mimicked. c. imitating the mannerisms of the participants tended to reduce the nonverbal behaviors exhibited during the interaction. d. participants who were not mimicked by their interaction partners indicated a greater willingness to interact with that person again in the future.
a
A cultural orientation in which independence, autonomy, and self-reliance take priority over group allegiances is called a. individualism. b. collectivism. c. power distance. d. uncertainty avoidance.
a
According to the research of Neumann and Struck (2000), participants would report that they expected a more positive mood state when they listened to a speaker who a. spoke in a happy voice. b. presented about material of specific interest to the listener. c. seemed to have very high expertise on their topic. d. sounded like an older, mature male.
a
According to work by Triantis (1995), collectivist cultures are characterized by a pattern of a. low complexity, low affluence, and cultural homogeneity. b. low complexity, high affluence, and cultural heterogeneity. c. high complexity, low affluence, and cultural homogeneity. d. high complexity, high affluence, and cultural heterogeneity.
a
Clara calls potential research participants and asks if they would be willing to give blood. Once they have agreed to donate blood, she informs them that their donation is scheduled at 7:00 in the morning on a Saturday. Though most participants are not happy to hear this information, almost all of them do show up for the blood donation appointment. Clara has taken advantage of a. lowballing. b. the foot-in-the-door technique. c. the door-in-the-face technique. d. psychological reactance.
a
Coalmine et al. (1991) observed participants in a clean or cluttered parking garage and found that participants were most likely to litter when they observed a confederate a. litter in the cluttered garage. b. litter in the clean garage. c. place trash in the proper receptacle in a cluttered garage. d. place trash in the proper receptacle in a clean garage.
a
Frank gets a bit anxious in social situations and tends to scratch his nose when he speaks. Toward which individual is he most likely to feel positively? a. Felicia, who mimics Frank's behavior and scratches her nose while they speak b. Fletcher, who stares quizzically at Frank every time he scratches his nose c. Florence, who averts her gaze and stares at the floor every time Frank scratches his nose d. Faisal, who appears quite at ease with Frank's behavior and reaches out several times to scratch Frank's nose for him
a
In comparison to obedience and compliance, conformity a. involves less direct pressure from others. b. occurs only in response to the behavior of a group of others. c. requires the physical presence of at least one other person. d. is more likely to produce destructive behaviors.
a
Informational influence occurs primarily because people a. believe that others are correct in their judgments, especially when they agree. b. fear the negative social consequences of appearing deviant. c. are motivated to appear consistent in their feelings and behaviors. d. respond to social norms automatically and without any thought.
a
Jamie wants an extra day to write a paper for class. Jamie first asks the professor for a one-week extension for the paper assignment. The professor refuses. Jamie then asks for a one-day extension. The professor agrees. Jamie's behavior best illustrates a. the door-in-the-face technique. b. the foot-in-the-door technique. c. reactance. d. the dual-process approach.
a
Jane bought her friends--Mayumi, Brenda, and Kate--drinks the last time they were out. The next time she needs to borrow money from one of them, who will feel the strongest need to reciprocate Jane's act of generosity? a. Mayumi, who is out with Jane the next night b. Kate, who is out with Jane the next week c. Brenda, who is out with Jane the next month d. All three will feel equally pressured to reciprocate.
a
No one else seems concerned about the welfare of the woman lying down in the alley. Therefore, Maureen steps over her as well, figuring that she is simply drunk or asleep and not in need of emergency assistance. Maureen's behavior is an example of a. informational social influence. b. normative social influence. c. compliance. d. obedience.
a
Pat attends a pre-screening of a new romantic comedy with a group of four people and then participates in a focus group where the group is asked several questions about the film. The group is asked, "How funny is the film?" Each member of the group responds to the question. Pat responds last, after hearing the rest of the group say that the movie was very funny. Pat is more likely to agree with them if a. Pat is female. b. Pat is from an individualistic culture. c. Pat is elderly. d. Pat's group had seven people instead of four.
a
Prentice and Miller (1996) found that most college students overestimate how comfortable their peers are with alcohol on campus. This misperception is an example of a. pluralistic ignorance. b. psychological reactance. c. mass psychogenic illness. d. the chameleon effect.
a
Professor Hildebrand just gave the first exam back to his students. Many in the class are convinced that one of the questions he asked had more than one correct answer. In fact, 13 students from the class show up to his office hours to protest the question. Professor Hildebrand is convinced that there is only one correct answer, and so he tries to convince the larger group of students that he is right. He will be most likely to convince this group of his point of view if he a. presents his arguments forcefully and consistently. b. tries to exert normative social influence on the group of students. c. presents himself as an outgroup member rather than as part of their ingroup. d. makes salient the norms of the group.
a
Research on majority and minority influence suggests all of the following except that a. majorities are more influential than minorities on subjective questions. b. majorities exert normative influence, whereas minorities exert informational influence. c. majorities are more influential than minorities on questions of fact. d. majority influence is greater on public measures of conformity, whereas minority influence is greater on private measures of conformity.
a
Sheriff's (1936) research using the auto kinetic effect demonstrated that a. people often look to others as a source of information. b. people are particularly concerned about social rejection. c. conformity is difficult to establish in the laboratory. d. only pre-existing relationships have the power to influence behavior.
a
The ways in which people are affected by the real or imagined presence of others is called a. social influence. b. psychological reactance. c. pluralistic ignorance. d. the auto kinetic effect.
a
Though she initially attended the pro-choice rally because all her friends were going, Marion now firmly believes in a woman's right to choose when it comes to abortion. Marion's new beliefs illustrate a. private conformity. b. public conformity. c. reciprocation ideology. d. reciprocation wariness.
a
Which of the following was the central focus of Muzzier Sheriff's (1936) study on conformity? a. the auto kinetic effect b. stroboscopic motion c. motion parallax d. the Doppler effect
a
Which person is considered a "creditor" in terms of their reciprocation ideology? a. Bertram, who likes to be generous with his friends so they will help him in the future b. Caitlin, who hates to feel beholden to someone c. Marsha, who likes to be generous with her friends because it makes her feel good d. Boyd, who is stingy with his friends because he believes in self-reliance
a
While driving down a street in a residential neighborhood, Aaron sees a sign in a yard that says, "Slow down! Jimmy and I like to play in the street!" This is quite a bit different than normal signs that admonish a driver to slow down. Aaron immediately slows his car down to a safe 15 miles per hour, and stays at that speed until the end of the street. What compliance technique was used to get him to slow down? a. the pique technique b. the PIYAN technique c. the dump and chase technique d. the disrupt and reframe technique
a
. Individuals from collectivistic cultures are more likely than those from individualistic cultures to a. have an independent orientation. b. conform to a public norm. c. disobey an authority. d. possess greater heterogeneity.
b
A person from a collectivist culture is ____ to accept a free sample of food in a supermarket. a. more likely than a person from an individualist culture b. less likely than a person from an individualist culture c. equally likely as a person from an individualist culture d. more likely than a person from a Western, but not Eastern, culture
b
A person high in reciprocation wariness would most likely endorse which statement? a. If someone does you a favor, it is good to repay that favor. b. Asking for someone's help gives that person power over your life. c. Never lend money to a friend. d. Generosity is always appropriate.
b
According to research by Emily Prunin and others (2007), which statement explains why people perceive others to be more conforming than they, themselves, are? a. People are poor judges of others' motivations. b. People tend to judge others by their overt behavior while judging themselves by focusing inward. c. People judge themselves in the same way that that they judge others, but often much less accurately. d. People judge others by asking them about their inner thought processes.
b
According to the dual-process approach to understanding minority influence, a. majority and minority influence occur for through similar processes. b. group majorities and minorities exert their influence in very different ways. c. majority influence is likely to produce private conformity for ambiguous situations and public conformity for unambiguous situations. d. minority influence occurs through different psychological processes in collectivist versus individualistic cultures.
b
According to the dual-process approach, majorities exert influence by producing ____, whereas minorities exert influence by producing ____. a. informational influence; normative influence b. public conformity; private conformity c. reactance; obedience d. conversion; compliance
b
All of the following can help to explain why the door-in-the-face technique can increase compliance except a. feelings of guilt. b. psychological commitment. c. perceptual contrast. d. reciprocal concessions.
b
As he was about to enter the mall, Evan was approached by someone and asked to wear a small green ribbon on his shirt to show his support for the "Save the Squirrels" campaign. Evan wasn't quite sure that squirrels were actually endangered, but he agreed to wear the ribbon. A week later, Evan was approached again and asked to contribute $10 to help save the squirrels. Though he would have rather spent his money elsewhere, he agreed. Evan has been the victim of the ____ technique. a. lowballing b. foot-in-the-door c. door-in-the-face d. that's-not-all
b
Asch (1956) found that the size of a group of individuals is related to the likelihood that any one of them will demonstrate conformity to the group. The optimal number of in group members, above which conformity did not significantly increase, was a. 1 or 2 b. 3 or 4 c. 5 or 6 d. 7 or 8
b
At a campaign meeting, the majority of the staff argues that they should use negative ads to attack their opponent. Despite their strong feelings on this matter, Stefan argues successfully for positive ads. According to the dual-process approach, Stefan's influence has probably resulted in a. defiance. b. conversion. c. public conformity. d. collusion.
b
At the sales meeting, Leo clasped his hands behind his head and reclined in his chair. Within minutes, three other team members were sitting in the same posture, demonstrating the psychological tendency referred to as a. psychological reactance. b. the chameleon effect. c. lowballing. d. idiosyncrasy credits.
b
Reuben notices one group of eight people littering in the park. Rachel sees four different pairs of people littering in the park. Which of the following is true? a. Reuben is more likely to conform to the behavior of the litterbugs than is Rachel. b. Rachel is more likely to conform to the behavior of the litterbugs than is Reuben. c. Reuben and Rachel are equally likely to conform to the behavior of the litterbugs. d. Reuben is more likely to conform because of informational influence, but Rachel is more likely to conform because of normative influence.
b
Social norms are most likely to lead to conformity when a. they are behavioral. b. we know the norms and focus on them. c. they have a high level of complexity. d. they are very subtle and difficult to know on a conscious level.
b
The fact that the presence of an ally, regardless of her competence, reduces conformity indicates that a. informational social influence typically wins out over normative social influence in the long run. b. it is exceedingly difficult to hold out against the pressure to conform without at least one supporter in the group. c. conformity does not occur for high-stakes decisions with important repercussions. d. men conform less in private than they do in public.
b
The unspoken rule dictating that we should treat others as they have treated us is called the a. social impact theory. b. norm of reciprocity. c. dual-process approach. d. equity principle.
b
When she is asked what she should do when a friend does a favor for her, Marnie says, "I usually don't let anyone do favors for me. I don't like the idea that I would owe them something." Marine would describe people who do favors for her as a. reciprocators. b. creditors. c. assessors. d. debtors.
b
When trying to close a car sale, Jerry often tries to sweeten the deal by telling the customer that he will throw in six free oil changes as well. This sales technique is best described as a. lowballing. b. the that's-not-all technique. c. the foot-in-the-door technique. d. the door-in-the-face technique.
b
Will and Grace have just started to attend church. Will pays attention to when the rest of the congregation sits and stands because he wants to be sure to stand and sit at the appropriate times. Grace stands up and sits down when the rest of the congregation does because if she doesn't, the elderly couple across the aisle scowls at her. Will has conformed because of ____, whereas Grace has conformed because of ____. a. normative influence; informational influence b. informational influence; normative influence c. compliance; obedience d. obedience; compliance
b
You're out with friends when a talk show host walks up and asks if you'll answer a few trivia questions on camera. When he asks how many feet are in a mile, your first friend says 2,000 and your second friend says 3,000. You don't know the correct answer, so you say 2,500. Your response is similar to the judgments made by participants in which study? a. Langer et al. (1978) b. Sheriff (1936) c. Asch (1951) d. Milgram (1962)
b
As group size increases, conformity will a. increase. b. decrease. c. increase as long as each additional member of the group is perceived as an independent source of influence. d. decrease as long as each additional member of the group is perceived as an independent source of influence.
c
Horatio is asked what main dish was served for lunch at the cafeteria yesterday. He knows that it was roast beef, but before responding, he observes six other students who say the main dish was pizza. Horatio is most likely to say the main dish was pizza if he hears the response from a. the six other students in three pairs of two. b. all the students at once. c. the six students at six different times in six different places. d. the six other students in two pairs of three.
c
In order to convince people to buy lunch from their restaurant in the food court, employees at the Chinese restaurant gave out free samples of chicken teriyaki to everyone who walks by. The restaurant employees are hoping to take advantage of the a. door-in-the-face technique. b. that's-not-all technique. c. norm of reciprocity. d. chameleon effect.
c
Natasha convinces Joel to take her to the airport by first asking him to loan her his car for a week. Her attempt to get Joel to do her a favor is most likely based on the principles of a. commitment and reciprocity. b. perceptual contrast and self-perception. c. reciprocal concessions and perceptual contrast. d. self-perception and commitment.
c
Normative influence tends to produce ____, whereas informational influence leads to ____. a. compliance; obedience b. conversion; compliance c. public conformity; private conformity d. pluralistic ignorance; pluralistic knowledge
c
Often overlooked in Asch's conformity study is the fact that participants refused to conform ____ percent of the time. a. 25 b. 37 c. 63 d. 75
c
Research by Prentice and Miller (1996) found that college students are likely to have more positive attitudes toward drinking on campus and consume more alcohol if they a. attend colleges that strictly forbid drinking on campus. b. participate in workshops designed to increase their personal responsibility for drinking. c. overestimate the favorability of their peers' attitudes toward drinking. d. believe such attitudes and behavior are inconsistent with social norms.
c
Sheriff (1936) asked groups of participants to estimate the distance moved by a point of light. He found that a. participants were more accurate when they were alone than when they were in groups. b. participants were more accurate in groups than when they were alone. c. as the study progressed, the participants' estimates began to converge with each other. d. as the study progressed, the participants' estimates began to diverge from each other.
c
The "minority slowness effect" refers to the finding that a. members of minority groups are often slow to change their minds during group discussion. b. it takes longer for minority group members to change the minds of majority group members than vice versa. c. people with minority opinions are slower to respond to questions about the topic than people with majority opinions. d. minority groups take longer to form, as people are less likely to join a group whose opinion is not widely accepted.
c
The compliance technique in which compliance to a desired request is increased by first gaining compliance to a smaller, but related, request is called a. lowballing. b. the that's-not-all technique. c. the foot-in-the-door technique. d. the door-in-the-face technique.
c
The experience of being ostracized has been found to be a. fleeting and relatively harmless. b. more disturbing for women than for men. c. similar in brain area activation to the experience of physical pain. d. likely to lead to gun use and other forms of violence.
c
The idea that minority influence works in the same way that majority influence is most consistent with a. the interpersonal relations model. b. the dual-process approach. c. the single-process approach. d. research comparing private and public conformity.
c
The primary difference between the research of Sheriff (1936) and Asch (1951) is that a. Sheriff was able to demonstrate conformity, whereas Asch was not. b. Asch was able to demonstrate conformity, whereas Sheriff was not. c. Sheriff relied on an ambiguous task, whereas Asch used an unambiguous task. d. Asch relied on an ambiguous task, whereas Sheriff used an unambiguous task.
c
A half-dozen high school students are going to a concert. Chantal wants to wear a new colorful outfit that she just received as a gift, but she assumes that her five friends will all be wearing nothing but black leather. Chantal decides to do likewise, and leaves her colorful outfit in the closet. Chantal's behavior is an example of a. reciprocation wariness. b. idiosyncrasy credits. c. resistance. d. conformity.
d
Which explanation for why a consistent behavioral style increases minority influence is least plausible? a. A consistent minority draws more attention to its position. b. A consistent minority puts increased pressure on the majority to compromise. c. The position advocated by a consistent minority is more likely to be perceived as valid. d. A consistent minority is more likely to exert normative social influence on the group.
d
Which of the following is not considered one of the three forms of social influence discussed in this chapter? a. conformity b. compliance c. obedience d. independence
d
Which of the following is not one of the emotions a person is likely to feel after being ostracized? a. numbness b. anger c. sadness d. acceptance
d
As compared to conformity, compliance occurs a. only after careful deliberation. b. in response to a direct request. c. publicly, but not privately. d. as a result of less direct pressure from others.
b
Interpersonal credits a person earns by following group norms are called ____ credits. a. idiosyncrasy b. brownie c. group d. normative
a
Some researchers are planning to go around the world and put participants in a version of the Asch study in which they are asked to make judgments about the lengths of lines. Cross-cultural research suggests that the least amount of conformity should be observed in cultures a. characterized by financial independence and prosperity. b. where the majority of the people in positions of power are men. c. where the people live a simple life, as in an isolated farming community. d. with very little cultural diversity.
a
The concepts of ostracism and conformity are related in that a. failure to conform can lead to ostracism. b. being ostracized typically reduces future conformity. c. ostracism always comes before conformity. d. when people do not conform, they typically tend to ostracize.
a
The foot-in-the-door technique takes particular advantage of the a. desire to maintain consistent self-perceptions.. b. norm of reciprocity. c. effect of mindlessness. d. perceived contrast between small and large requests.
a
The effectiveness of lowballing seemed to be based on the psychology of a. ostracism. b. commitment. c. reciprocity. d. social impact.
b
According to Moscovici, majorities derive their power to influence others by virtue of their ____, whereas nonconformists derive their power to influence others from their ____. a. social connections; sheer number b. informational connections; social standing c. sheer number; style of behavior d. informational influence; normative influence
c
Individualistic cultures tend to exhibit all of the following except greater a. complexity. b. affluence. c. heterogeneity. d. conformity.
d
A council meeting has produced heated debate about an issue. Most of the members of the council hold one opinion, but a few hold another. During a break in the meeting, the members of the council who have the minority opinion call you for advice as to the best way to influence the majority of the council. Based on social psychological research, particularly concerning the dual-process approach, what should you advise them to do?
ANSWER: According to the dual-process approach, minorities and majorities exert influence in different ways. You should advise the council members to take advantage of factors that enhance minority influence rather than trying to manipulate factors that enhance majority influence. One such factor is style of behavior. The research of Moscovici and others has suggested that consistency is very important for a group minority. That is, the people in the minority should be forceful, persistent, and unwavering in support of their view, while appearing to be open-minded and flexible. Hollander recommends a different approach, however. Hollander argues that those in the minority should first conform to the majority opinions in order to establish themselves as competent insiders, and only then dissent from the majority. Thus, you should advise the council members that they initially show their support for the majority's opinion and then suggest their own opinion, and further, that they present their arguments for this latter position in a forceful, persistent, and unwavering style. In addition, the council members should also call for an anonymous, private vote on the issue, as minorities exert stronger influence on private measures of conformity than on public measures.
Compare and contrast the door-in-the-face technique with the lowball technique.
ANSWER: Lowballing is a two-step compliance technique in which the influencer secures agreement with a request but then increases the size of that request by revealing hidden costs. Disturbing as it may be, lowballing is an interesting technique. Surely, once the lowball offer has been thrown, many recipients suspect that they were misled. Yet they go along. Why? The reason appears to hinge on the psychology of commitment (Keesler, 1971). Once people make a particular decision, they justify it to themselves by thinking of all its positive aspects. As they get increasingly committed to a course of action, they grow more resistant to changing their mind, even if the initial reasons for the action have been changed or withdrawn entirely. In the car dealership scenario, you might very well have decided to purchase the car because of the price. But then you would have thought about its sleek appearance, the scent of the leather interior, the iPod dock, and the brand-new satellite radio. By the time you learned that the price would be more than you'd bargained for, it would be too late—you would already have been hooked. The door-in-the-face technique is a two-step compliance technique in which an influencer prefaces the real request with one that is so large that it is rejected. Why is the door-in-the-face technique such an effective trap? One possibility involves the principle of perceptual contrast: To the person exposed to a very large initial request, the second request "seems smaller." Two dollars' worth of candy bars is not bad compared with ten dollars for circus tickets. Likewise, taking a group of kids to the zoo seems trivial compared with two years of volunteer work. As intuitively sensible as this explanation seems, Coalmine and others (1975) concluded that perceptual contrast is only partly responsible for the effect. When participants only heard the large request without actually having to reject it, their rate of compliance with the second request (25%) was only slightly larger than the 17% rate of compliance exhibited by those who heard only the small request. A more compelling explanation for the effect involves the notion of reciprocal concessions. A close cousin of the reciprocity norm, this refers to the pressure to respond to changes in a bargaining position. When an individual backs down from a large request to a smaller one, we view that move as a concession that we should match by our own compliance. Thus, the door-in-the-face technique does not work if the second request is made by a different person (Coalmine et al., 1975). Nor does it work if the first request is so extreme that it comes across as an insincere "first offer" (Schwarzwald et al., 1979). On an emotional level, refusing to help on one request may also trigger feelings of guilt, which we can reduce by complying with the second, smaller request (O'Keefe & Figgie, 1997; Miller, 2002)
Why has the Milgram obedience experiment been subjected to such scrutiny and, in some cases, doubt with regard to the ethics of appropriate research in psychology?
For many years, the ethics of this research has been the focus of much debate. Those who say it was not ethical point to the potential psychological harm to which Milgram's participants were exposed. In contrast, those who believe that these experiments met appropriate ethical standards emphasize the profound contribution it has made to our understanding of human nature and an important social problem. They conclude that on balance, the danger that destructive obedience poses for all humankind justified Milgram's unorthodox methods.
Compare and contrast normative influence and informational social influence. Which of these types of social influence played a bigger role in Sheriff's study (in which participants estimated how far a dot of light appeared to move)? Which played a bigger role in Asch's study (in which participants made judgments involving the lengths of lines)? Explain your answers.
Normative social influence leads people to conform out of fear of the negative consequences of appearing deviant. Indeed, to avoid standing out from the rest of the group and risking embarrassment, individuals will often conform to the majority even if they think the majority is wrong. Alternatively, informational social influence leads people to conform when they believe others are correct in their judgments. In this case, they conform to the majority because they assume that the relatively large number of people holding a particular opinion or behaving in a particular way suggests that these people are correct. The primary influence found in Sheriff's study was informational because the situation was rather ambiguous for the participants. They could not be sure how far the dot of light really moved, so they looked to the other participants to provide information about the correct answers. Even when participants in Sheriff's study were later asked to make the same judgments alone (where there would be little pressure against deviating from a group norm), they continued to make judgments consistent with the group norm; this suggests that the participants conformed to the group norm because of the information provided earlier. In Asch's study, however, normative influence played the bigger role. Here, the situation was not ambiguous; the correct answers were obvious to the participants. Not needing the other people in the group to provide them with answers that they already knew, the participants were not particularly vulnerable to informational influence. Rather, Asch's participants were concerned about deviating from the opinions expressed by a unanimous majority. Indeed, when these participants were asked to write down their answers privately, their levels of conformity dropped sharply.
Specific variables concerning the victim in Milgram's research on destructive obedience affected participants' levels of obedience. Identify one such variable, and describe the nature of its effect.
One variable in question was the proximity of the victim in relation to participants. The less physically separated they were, the less willing participants were to obey the experimenter and administer the maximum shock voltage. When the victim was in the same room as the participants, 40 percent of the participants fully obeyed, compared to 65 percent in the baseline condition where the victim was in an adjacent room. When participants were required to physically grasp the victim's hand and force it onto a metal shock plate, full obedience dropped to 30 percent. Physical separation from the victim allowed participants to distance themselves emotionally from the consequences of their actions, enabling them to obey the experimenter's orders. But the closer the victim was to the participants, the more difficult it was for them to achieve this emotional distance, and, therefore, the negative consequences of their actions were impossible to ignore. Social impact theory offers a related explanation, one that accounts for the effects of proximity in terms of the immediacy of the sources of influence. Just as the experimenter is a source of influence on the participants, so, too, is the victim a source of influence, albeit in an opposite manner. That is, the experimenter influences the participants to obey, and the victim, by protesting and crying out in pain, influences the participants to defy the experimenter's orders. The more distant the victim is from the participant, the less immediate is this source of influence, and, therefore, the less social impact it exerts.
Describe the factors involved in social impact theory.
Social impact theory maintains that social influence depends on the strength, immediacy, and number of source persons relative to target persons. Strength refers to the status, ability, or relationships of a source of influence compared to his/her target. Immediacy of a source refers to the source's proximity in time and space to the target. The number of sources refers to how many sources there are. The stronger the source (i.e., higher status or closer relationship), the more immediate the source (closer geographically), and the greater number of sources, the more influence the target will feel and the more likely that target is to yield to that influence. If the source's attempts at influence are divided among targets, that will dilute the impact of the source. This theory has been criticized for failing to explain why these factors affect social influence, but has the benefit of predicting when social influence will occur.
Describe the door-in-the-face technique, and explain why this is an effective compliance strategy. What evidence is there to support your explanation of why this technique is effective?
The door-in-the-face technique is a two-step technique. It begins with a ridiculous request, which, once denied by the target, is followed up with a more reasonable request. This strategy is effective because it draws on the norm of reciprocity (i.e., the reduction leads the target to reciprocate and accede to the second request) and on perceptual contrast (i.e., the second request does not look so arduous as compared with the first one). In one study, college students were more likely to agree to escort a group of juvenile delinquents on a one-day trip to the zoo if they had been first asked to volunteer time over many weeks to work with these children.
According to social impact theory, resistance to social pressure is most likely to occur when social impact is a. divided among many strong and distant targets. b. divided among many weak and immediate targets. c. consolidated within one distant target. d. consolidated within one immediate target.
a
American mothers in 1924 seemed to value ____ more than they do today. a. conformity b. independence c. autonomy d. kindness
a
Milgram's research on obedience a. has stirred controversy regarding its ethics. b. revealed that far fewer people would deliver maximum shocks than was predicted by psychiatrists. c. was conducted to better understand the war in Vietnam. d. had psychologically disturbed individuals serve as participants.
a
One factor that did not seem related to the amount of obedience exhibited in the Milgram obedience study was the a. participant's sex. b. proximity of the learner to the teacher. c. location of the study. d. physical presence of the experimenter.
a
Recent approaches to social impact theory suggest that a. the effect of immediacy does not necessitate physical proximity. b. it is more relevant to understanding conformity than to understanding obedience. c. source strength is less important than the number of sources. d. the strength of a source depends more on prestige than intelligence.
a
Research examining rebellion and obedience suggests that a. disobedience to authority is much more likely in the presence of other allies who will also disobey. b. the presence of an ally has very different results for obedience than it does for conformity. c. participants in the Milgram studies would have been even more likely to obey had there been another participant seated at the shock panel with them. d. the presence of a group of people is a guaranteed safeguard against destructive obedience.
a
Which experimental group will feel most socially connected? a. a group of three people who rocked in rocking chairs in unison b. a group of three people who rocked in rocking chairs together, but at different paces c. a group of three people who sat in different types of chairs d. a group of ten people who are geographically dispersed
a
In Burger's (2009) replication of Milgram's obedience experiments, how many participants continued to shock past 150 volts? a. 83% b. 70% c. 65% d. 37%
b
In Meeks and Rainmaker's study of obedience, the equivalent of Milgram's electrical shocks was a. beating "prisoners" who failed to obey orders. b. delivering harassing remarks to a job candidate. c. ostracizing a person from a social group. d. helping a drunk person get a ride home.
b
Meeks and Rainmaker's (1995) study of obedience a. replicated Milgram's in every aspect. b. was analogous, but not identical, to Milgram's paradigm. c. was completely different to Milgram's paradigm. d. found opposing results to Milgram's.
b
Research on obedience suggests that participation in the Holocaust was a. encouraged by German traits of authoritarian personality. b. likely driven by situational factors that would influence anyone similarly. c. an extraordinary historical situation unlikely to be repeated. d. dissimilar in a variety of ways from the types of obedience observed in cults.
b
The nature of Milgram's obedience research paradigm exploited which compliance-induction strategy? a. lowballing b. foot-in-the-door technique c. door-in-the-face technique d. that's-not-all technique
b
The original Milgram obedience study a. demonstrates the personality characteristics associated with obedience to authority have changed over time. b. has been followed up by a number of additional studies that have varied specific aspects of the research situation. c. confirms that conformity results from both informational and normative social pressures. d. randomly assigned participants to one of two experimental conditions.
b
The questionnaire measure used to assess an individual's authoritarian personality is referred to as the a. A-scale. b. F-scale. c. Asch-scale. d. Milgram-scale.
b
Twinge interprets Burger's (2009) replication of Milgram's obedience studies as an indication that obedience rates have ____ since Milgram's original studies. a. not changed appreciably b. declined somewhat c. risen dramatically d. risen somewhat
b
When compared to those of 1924, American mothers in 1978 seemed to place higher value on ____. a. conformity b. independence c. community d. kindness
b
Which of the following is true of Milgram's obedience study? a. When participants were required to manually force the victim's hand onto a shock plate, obedience completely disappeared. b. The experimenter informed participants that he was accountable for any consequences of the participant's actions. c. Participants obeyed to the same extent whether the experimenter gave directions in person or over the telephone. d. The percentage of participants who obeyed to the end was the same as the percentage of participants who conformed in the Asch study.
b
All of the following reduced the level of obedience in the Milgram experiment except a. lowering the prestige of the institution where the experiment was conducted. b. having the experimenter in a different location. c. informing the participants that the experimenter assumed responsibility for the learner's welfare. d. having the learner be in the same room as the participant.
c
Meeks and Rainmaker's found that ____ percent of the participants in their study were willing to deliver all 15 harassing remarks. a. 82 b. 87 c. 92 d. 97
c
Resistance to the requests of others can be encouraged by all of the following except a. vigilance. b. reciprocal wariness. c. following the norm of reciprocity. d. knowledge that the other person is trying to get you to comply.
c
Stan is a new student in his sixth-grade class. The other students exert normative pressure on him to conform to their opinion on some issue. According to social impact theory, Stan will be more likely to resist this influence if a. there are 20 rather than 11 students in the class. b. he perceives the other students as having high status. c. there are three other new students in the class who are receiving the same pressures. d. he comes from a culture that values a collectivist orientation.
c
The key difference between Gammon and others' (1982) obedience studies and Milgram's studies from the 1960s was that a. people conform less in the 1980s than the 1960s. b. people conform more in the 1980s than the 1960s. c. Milgram's participants were alone but Gammon's were in a group. d. Milgram's participants were in a group but Gammon's were alone.
c
Though this was certainly not Milgram's intent, a. many theorists use the results of his studies to try to explain the behavior of Nazi guards and others during the Holocaust. b. some scholars suggest that his findings indicate that anyone is capable of destructive obedience if placed in the right situation. c. raising people's awareness of the explanations for someone else's wrongdoing also tends to render people more forgiving of this wrongdoing. d. subsequent researchers have extended his findings to other cultures and time periods.
c
What percentage of the participants in Milgram's study of destructive obedience demonstrated complete obedience to the experimenter? a. 10% b. 35% c. 65% d. 90%
c
Which method(s) will help a person avoid being caught in a compliance trap? a. vigilance only b. reciprocation wariness only c. both vigilance and reciprocation wariness d. vigilance for men, but reciprocation wariness for women
c
Which of the following was not part of the procedure in Milgram's research on destructive obedience? a. Participants were ordered to administer electric shocks that were apparently so intense that it caused the learner to scream in pain. b. Participants playing the role of teachers were ordered to increase the electric shocks in increments of 15 volts for every wrong answer the learner gave. c. Participants playing the role of learners were ordered to give shocks to the teacher who was trying to complete the task. d. The experimenter told participants who wanted to leave that they had no choice but to continue with the study.
c
Which situation would not be predicted by social impact theory? a. A person is more likely to obey a nearby authority than one who is far away. b. Each person in a group of ten contributes less money to a tip for their waitperson than each person in a group of three. c. A teacher can exert more control over a large class than a small class. d. Patients are more likely to follow advice given by doctors than advice given by nurses.
c
Who of the following is most likely to obey in Milgram's study? a. a man participating in a run-down office building with an experimenter in a lab coat b. a woman who has to physically place the learner's hand down on a shock plate c. a woman participating at Yale University with an experimenter in a lab coat d. a man participating at Yale University with an experimenter dressed casually
c
Milgram's research on obedience is notable for having led some participants to believe that a helpless man in the next room had been rendered unconscious or even dead by a strong electric shock, marked "xxx" on a shock generator. What was the highest voltage that participants believed they could administer? a. 150 volts b. 275 volts c. 360 volts d. 450 volts
d
The Milgram study demonstrated a. the specific personality traits that predict destructive obedience to authority. b. that people will typically harm another individual with little to no social pressure to do so. c. obedience to authority is most destructive when the authority figure is particularly harsh and demanding. d. the potential for situational influences to lead ordinary people to commit extraordinarily destructive acts.
d
Those participants in Milgram's study who went to the very end of the shock meter were a. diagnosed as abnormal by a team of psychiatrists. b. in the minority among participants in the study. c. not told that the learner had a previous heart condition. d. not found to be substantially different than those who refused to do so.
d
When Cheryl is with her supervisors, she obeys their decisions without question. But when she is with employees under her supervision, she is aggressive and demanding. Cheryl is likely to be described by social psychologists as having a. idiosyncrasy credits. b. an introverted character. c. reciprocation wariness. d. an authoritarian personality.
d
Hiroko is usually very agreeable and goes along with his friends' plans. Tonight, however, he tells his friends that even though they all want to go out for Mexican food, he has a strong preference for Italian food. Even though he is the only person who initially votes for Italian, Hiroko's friends eventually come to agree with him because he usually does go along with the group. This best epitomizes which of the following phenomena associated with minority influence? a. consensus attribution b. idiosyncrasy credits c. door-in-the-face technique d. graduated and reciprocated initiative in tension reduction (GRIT)
b
If American children raised in ways consistent with mainstream American culture and Chinese children raised in ways that were consistent with traditional Chinese culture were placed in the same classroom, which statement would probably be true? a. The American children would never demonstrate conformity, and the Chinese children would always conform. b. The American children would demonstrate less conformity than the Chinese children. c. The American children would demonstrate less private conformity, but more public conformity than the Chinese children. d. The two groups of children would conform to the same extent and degree.
b
In a study by Baron et al. (1996) in which groups of three participants were asked to act as eyewitnesses, the greatest level of conformity occurred when participants were motivated to be ____ and the task was quite ____. a. accurate; easy b. accurate; difficult c. accepted by their partners; easy d. accepted by their partners; difficult
b
Ireland and Pennebaker (2010) found evidence for a. mood contagion. b. mimicry in use of language. c. destructive obedience. d. the dynamic nature of mimicry.
b
Lily is interested in conducting an experiment to demonstrate that there are some situations in which men are more likely to conform than women. Which strategy should Lily adopt in designing her study? a. She should have participants engage in a discussion about politics. b. She should have participants engage in a discussion about fashion. c. She should tell participants that they are being observed throughout the study. d. She should tell participants that their primary goal in the study should be to appear attractive toward group members of the opposite sex.
b
Many participants in the social influence study conducted by ____ gave public responses that they privately knew to be inaccurate. a. Sheriff b. Asch c. Milgram d. Zimbardo
b
Mary has just heard five friends say that Massachusetts is the largest state in New England, when she knows it is Maine. Rob, the next friend in line, says that New Hampshire is the largest state in New England. In this situation, Mary is now less likely to conform with the first five friends than if Rob had said that a. Maine is the largest state. b. Massachusetts is the largest state. c. he isn't familiar with New England. d. Vermont is the largest state.
b
Normative influence tends to occur primarily when people a. are uncertain regarding the correct answer and therefore look to others for guidance. b. fear the negative social consequences of rejection that can follow appearing deviant. c. are motivated to appear consistent in their feelings and behaviors. d. feel that their freedom to choose a particular course of action has been threatened.
b
Participants in Asch's line judgment study conformed approximately ____ percent of the time. a. 27 b. 37 c. 47 d. 57
b
Participants in an experiment are asked to look at pictures of different infants and rate the attractiveness of each infant on a 10-point scale. The participants are tested in groups of three and indicate their ratings aloud. For almost all of the infants, the participants tend to give ratings similar to other group members. We can be most certain that their ratings represent private conformity rather than public conformity if a. they exhibit much less conformity in the presence of the experimenter. b. they give the same ratings alone as they do in the group. c. their ratings result from their desire to fit in with the rest of the group members. d. they are not especially motivated to be accurate in their judgments.
b
Psychologists tend to refer to a culture that values the virtues of interdependence and social harmony as a. conformist. b. collectivist. c. communist. d. cooperative.
b
The residents in Burberry Hill have convened to discuss whether to build a neighborhood pool. The majority are in favor of building a pool. However, Miguel, a long-time resident, expresses his opposition. Which of the following is unlikely? a. The residents will think more carefully about the issue of building a pool because Miguel presented a dissenting opinion. b. Miguel's status of being a long-time resident and its accompanying idiosyncrasy credits will help him influence the group. c. Miguel will not gain private conformity to his opinion, only public conformity. d. Miguel will be more influential if he repeatedly expresses his opposition as the group discusses the benefits of building a pool.
c
We can conclude that participants in Sheriff's study exhibited private conformity rather than public conformity because a. when retested without their fellow group members, participants reverted to their original estimates. b. they would report their group's normative estimate when asked to respond aloud, but not when asked to respond in writing. c. they continued to use their group estimates when retested alone one year later. d. the task was too easy for people to demonstrate public conformity.
c
Which of the following concerning the relationship between gender and conformity is true? a. Men exhibit greater conformity than women in face-to-face interactions. b. Men exhibit greater conformity than women regardless of the situation. c. Women exhibit greater conformity than men in face-to-face interactions. d. Women exhibit greater conformity than men regardless of the situation.
c
Which of the following has not been demonstrated by research on mimicry? a. Within a few days of birth, infants mimic the facial expressions of adults. b. Various species of non-human animals demonstrate rudimentary forms of mimicry. c. People often mimic the facial expressions of others, but never mimic their overt behaviors. d. People sometimes mimic facial expressions of which they are not even consciously aware.
c
Which of the following is not an example of social influence? a. A sports fan who decides to join the other members of the stadium crowd in doing the wave b. A student who hears that some of his fellow classmates may have been exposed to a noxious gas and immediately comes to feel a bit nauseated himself c. A model who catches a glimpse of herself wearing a swimsuit in a mirror and suddenly becomes self-conscious about the way she looks d. A guest at a dinner party who does not understand a joke told by the host, but laughs anyway because everyone else is laughing
c
Which of the following is the best example of normative influence? a. Patients adhere rigidly to doctors' recommendations. b. People estimate how far a stable dot has moved by referring to others' estimates. c. People wear a particular type of shoe even if uncomfortable because it is considered fashionable. d. Military personnel follow a superior's orders that are morally questionable.
c
. The tendency to alter perceptions, opinions, and behavior in ways that are consistent with group norms is called a. psychological reactance. b. compliance. c. obedience. d. conformity.
d
According to Hollander's (1958) work on idiosyncrasy credits, which individual would be most effective in convincing a majority to change their opinion? a. A person who has just joined the group, because such a person has no history of antagonism with any of the majority group members b. A person who does not belong to the group at all, because such a person would be perceived as the most objective c. A person who has been in the group for quite a while, but consistently disagrees with the group d. A person who has been in the group for a long time, and usually goes along with the majority of the group
d
According to your text, studies examining imitation have found that it is seen in all but which species of animal? a. hamsters b. fish c. pigeons d. camels
d
Baron and others (1996) found that participants' levels of conformity depended on how motivated they were to do well. When offered a financial incentive, conformity went a. down when the task was difficult and up when the task was easy. b. up in both conditions. c. down in both conditions. d. up when the task was difficult and down when the task was easy.
d
Imagine that some researchers conducted a study and interpreted the results of the study as indicative of normative influence. These researchers are most likely to reach this conclusion if participants in their study a. were truly convinced that the majority was correct in their opinions. b. behaved in a way that would be considered normal to people in Western cultures. c. did what they felt was morally right, even if it violated social norms in the process. d. conformed because they feared being rejected for appearing deviant.
d
In a study on the likelihood of individuals to litter in a public park, Coalmine (2003) found that the ____ increased visitors' likelihood of tossing a flyer onto the ground. a. presence of trash cans that were visible but rather far away b. appearance of the person who handed out the flyer was dirty and disheveled c. presence fewer people nearby to observe the littering d. appearance of more litter already on the ground
d
Jay participates in an experiment where he and three other participants are asked to judge the quality of a series of sculptures. Jay is least likely to exhibit informational influence if a. each sculpture is shown for only a few seconds. b. he is motivated to be very accurate in his judgments. c. there are no objective criteria by which to make such judgments. d. there is a clear and unambiguous response for each sculpture.
d
Mara needs to borrow James's pen and is pondering how to ask him. She considers three options—asking for the pen outright without any reasoning, telling him that she needs the pen "to write something," or telling him that she needs it "to sign a letter." Which statement is true? a. James is more likely to comply with the outright request than the "letter" plea. b. James is equally likely to comply with the "letter" plea and the outright request. c. James is less likely to comply with the "write something" plea than the outright request. d. James is equally likely to comply with the "letter" plea and the "write something" plea.
d
People who are especially likely to exploit the norm of reciprocity for personal gain can be identified by questionnaires that measure their a. social impact. b. vulnerability to informational influence. c. idiosyncrasy credits. d. reciprocation ideology.
d
Research has found that when people are presented with a request accompanied by a reason that does not offer a real justification for the request, they often respond a. with skeptical reactance. b. by asking for a more complete explanation. c. with surprise followed by caution. d. by complying mindlessly.
d
Research on social influence in virtual groups shows that they a. are much less influential than "live" groups. b. only have impact when member identities are known. c. only have impact when member identities are hidden. d. can be quite influential even when they are remote.
d
The conformity seen in Sheriff's (1936) study was most likely the result of a. normative influence. b. private conformity. c. public conformity. d. informational influence.
d
The technique of getting a commitment from a potential customer and then changing the terms of the agreement is best described as a. reciprocal concession. b. cognitive dissonance. c. the foot-in-the-door technique. d. lowballing.
d
The tendency to unconsciously mimic the nonverbal behavior of others is called a. reciprocation wariness. b. pluralistic ignorance. c. the ally effect. d. the chameleon effect.
d
Will and Grace have just started to attend church. Will pays attention to when the rest of the congregation sits and stands because he wants to be sure to stand and sit at the appropriate times. Grace stands up and sits down when the rest of the congregation does because if she doesn't, the elderly couple across the aisle scowls at her. Will has conformed because of ____, whereas Grace has conformed because of ____. a. normative influence; informational influence b. informational influence; normative influence c. compliance; obedience d. obedience; compliance
d
With respect to the impact of group size on conformity, Asch found a. greater conformity with ten confederates than with five confederates. b. that conformity increases as an exponential function of group size. c. that one group of six confederates produced more conformity than two groups of three confederates. d. negligible increases in conformity after three or four confederates.
d
Women conform more and men conform less when they believe they are being observed. Eagly (1987) argues that this occurs because a. being watched makes people self-aware, which brings out their underlying personalities. b. women are easier to manipulate, whereas men tend to be more independent. c. women and men tend to be knowledgeable about different kinds of topics. d. people feel greater pressure in public to behave in ways consistent with their gender role.
d
