chapter 7 psych exam 2

during which of the memory processes is attention most critical?

(not exactly sure) i believe encoding, because this is when you are getting a grasp on the information

sensory storage: what is the function of storage, encoding for storage, duration of storage, and capacity of storage?

1. creates perceptual continuity for the world around us 2. in the sense it is experienced: visual, auditory, taste, smell, and touch 3. up to a few seconds, depending on the sense 4. vast due to huge amount of sensory input

what strategies can students use to improve their learning and memory in preparation for exams? (6 things)

1. distribute learning 2. process deeply 3. practice 4. overlearn 5. picture images 6. make mnemonics

short-term storage: what is the function of storage, encoding for storage, duration of storage, and capacity of storage?

1. maintains information for immediate use 2. primarily auditory, also visual and semantic 3. about 20 seconds, indefinite with working memory manipulation of items 4. about 7 items, plus or minus 2, using working memory aids capacity

what are distorted memories? (occurs in 4 ways)

1. memory bias 2. flashbulb memories 3. misattribution 4. suggestibility

long-term storage: what is the function of storage, encoding for storage, duration of storage, and capacity of storage?

1. stores information for re-access and use at a later time 2. primarily semantic, also visual & auditory, dual coding provides richest encoding 3. probably unlimited 4. probably unlimited

Although she has had no dangerous experiences with bridges, cliffs, and the view from tall buildings, Sally now fears these stimuli as well. Which of the following would account for her acquiring a few of these other stimuli?

Generalization

what is retroactive interference?

access to older memories is impaired by newer memories.

example of implicit/non-declarative memories?

advertisers rely on implicit memory to influence our purchasing decisions. Constant exposure to brand names makes us more likely to think of them when we buy products. If you find yourself wanting a particular brand, you might be unconsciously remembering advertisement for that brand, even if you cannot recall specifics.

what is an example of misattribution?

an intriguing example of misattribution is cryptomnesia. Here, we think we have come up with a new idea, but really we have retried an old idea from memory and failed to attribute the idea to its proper source. Consider students who take notes while conducting library research. Sometimes, these students experience the illusion that they have composed the sentences themselves. This mistake can later lead to an accusation of plagarism.

Professor Linsmeier was recently in a motorcycle accident that left him with brain damage. He has no trouble teaching his economics course, which he has taught for 15 years. However, he has lost the ability to remember new information, such as the names of his students. He is most likely experiencing ____

anterograde amnesia

what are mnemonics?

are learning aids or strategies that use retrieval cues to improve access to memory

example of flashbulb memories?

brown and kulik interviewed research participants about their memories of the assassination of U.S. president John F. Kennedy. The participants described these 14-year-old memories in highly vivid terms. Flashbulb memories are an example of episodic memory.

what is proactive interference?

by contrast to retroactive interference, proactive interference is when access to newer memories is impaired by older memories.

levels of processing model

describes maintenance rehearsal as "shallow" processing and elaborative rehearsal as "deep" processing

what is working memory?

enables us to work on the information we have in short-term storage. So working memory allows us to actively process sounds, images, and ideas. This mechanism lets us repeat a phone number so that we can maintain it longer than a few seconds.

Johanna was asked to remember a string of letters. She heard x during the presentation of the letters. In her brain, this input was changed into the neural code s. Later, when she was asked to recall the letters, Johanna included s, not x, in her list. Johanna most likely made this error on the recall test due to an error in the _____ phase of memory.

encoding

Nathanials friend asks him what he ate for breakfast this morning. When nathanial remembers that he ate eggs, toast, and bacon, this recall is an example of ____ memory. When nathanial tells his friend what he ate, his ability to verbalize that information is an example of _______ memory

episodic, explicit

sally developed a fear of all balconies after almost falling from a balcony on a few occasions. What was the conditioned response?

fear of the balcony

example of semantic memory?

for instance, most people know what Jello is. They know the capitals of places they've never visited.

example of proactive interference?

in this case, when you take your psych exam, your performance on that test might suffer because you recall the older information that you studied first, the history material, not the newer information that you studied second, the psych material

what are some reasons that forgetting occurs?

interference, blocking, and absentmindedness.

what is memory bias?

is the exchanging of memories over time so that they become consistent with our current beliefs or attitudes. Often, we revise our memories when they contradict our new attitudes and beliefs. We also tend to remember events as casting us in prominent roles or favorable lights.

what is storage?

it is the second phase of memory, this is how you maintain the coded representation in a network of neurons in the brain. Storage an last a fraction of a second or as long as a lifetime.

what are state-dependent memory effects?

like physical context, internal cues, such as mood, are also encoded with a memory. When our internal states are the same during both encoding and retrieval, the situation can provide a retrieval cue that enhances access to a memory. This effect is known as state dependent memory.

example of state-dependent memory?

research on this topic was inspired by the observation that people with alcoholism often can't find important objects, such as paychecks. They store the objects in safe places while they are drinking, but cannot remember the places when they are sober. The next time they are drinking however, they may remember where they put the objects.

Demetra's husband is watching a football game on television. When Demetra asks if he will pick up their daughter, Zoe, from school the next day, he doesn't reply. When Demetra asks "did you hear me?" her husband replies "yes i heard you, i'll pick up zoe tomorrow." however, the next day, her husband comes home without Zoe. He claism to have no memory of being asked to pick her up. The fact that he did not have the information about picking up zoe from day car in ____ storage was most likely due to his _______

long-term, not paying attention to the request

what does the association networks idea suggest will increase the likelihood of remembering something?

memories are organized in long-term storage based on the meaning of information. Concepts are connected through their associations. The closer the concepts are to each other, the stronger the association between them. Activation of a concept (fire engine) spreads to close associates and activates them (dark whole lines). But far associates become only weakly activated (lighter dashed lines).

when Russel was growing up, he thought his grandma betty was a hoarder because she has so much junk that you could hardly walk around her house. Now that Russel is an adult, he obsessively buys old board games and action figures that remind him of his youth. He has so many boxes lying around, he can barely make a pathway from his bedroom to the kitchen. Russel claims that he learned to collect from his granda, whose house he loved visiting because she always collected "really cool, meaningful stuff" The fact that Russels memory about his grandma is currently positive can best be described by ________

memory bias.

Cory's roommate will not help cory with his math homework when Cory has been drinking. Cory's roommate is using ____ to decrease cory's drinking behavior.

negative punishment

what is misattribution?

occurs when we misremember the time, place, person, or circumstances involved with a memory.

what is semantic memory?

our knowledge of facts independent of personal experience. we might not remember where or when we learned a fact, but we know it.

what is an example of suggestibility?

participants were shown a videotape of a car accident. When participants heard the word smashed applied to the tape, they estimated the cars to be traveling faster than when they heard words like contacted, collided, hit, etc. One week later, they were asked if they had seen broken glass on the ground of the video. No glass broke in the video, but nearly 1/3 of the people that heard smashed falsely recalled having seen broken glass. Very few of those who heard hit recalled broken glass. The way the question was asked apparently influenced their memory for the information. This research reveals the suggestibility of memories in long-term storage.

how do mnemonics help us?

people often find mnemonics helpful for remembering items in long lists

Fred was in a bad car accident and can no longer remember things that hpapend to him in his childhood. However, he has no difficulty remembering things that have occurred since the accident, such as the medical procedures he has had to undergo. It appears fred has ______ amnesia.

retrograde

distinguish between retrograde and anterograde amnesia.

retrograde: people lose memories for past events, facts, people, and even personal information. by contrast, anterograde amensia: people lose the ability to form new memories.

what are implicit/nondeclarative memories?

refer to memories that we are not concious of. Because yo ucannot declare implicit memories in words, this system is sometimes called non-declarative memory. Implicit memory influences our lives in subtle ways.

what is episodic memory?

refers to our personal experiences and includes information about the time and place each experience occured

George has learned that his parents will buy him candy from the store if he begs for it loudly. His parents have decided to extinguish this learned response by ignoring George's pleas from now on. They ignore his pleas on the next three trips to the store. However, on the 4th trip, george throws a tantrum and because they are embarrassed by his loud behavior, his parents buy him the candy in order to get him to stop screaming. Unfortunately, Georges begging and screaming has now been _____, and the _____ schedule of reinforcement is likely to be very resistant to extinction.

reinforced, partial

example of retroactive interference?

say you're about to take a psych test. You study the psych material, and then study some history material. Your performance on the psych test might suffer because the psych material you studied first is harder to access due to interference from the history material you studied second.

what are schemas?

schemas guide our attention to the relevant features. Thanks to schemas, we can construct new memories by filling in holes within existing memories, overlooking inconsistent information and interpreting meaning based on our experiences. Although schemas help us make sense of the world, they can lead to biased encoding.

Joan remembers that hippocampus is the region of the brain responsible for helping her form new memories. Her memory for this fact is an example of a ________ memory.

semantic

what are the three memory stores?

sensory storage, short-term storage, long-term storage

when someone says the word doctor, 13-year-old Vanessa remembers her most recent medical visit. She also thinks of objects related to the concept of a doctor, such as an x-ray machine. The fact that a word brings up memories about many related ideas is best explained by ______.

spreading activation models of memory

Cadence is currently frustrated with a coworker. She wants to write a recommendation for one of her students, Jamie, who has many talents and is a hard worker. However, as she writes the letter, the only memories that come to mind are times when she was frustrated with Jamie. Cadence's experience of remembering only situations where Jamie frustrated her is best explained by _______

state dependence

shayla is able to retain the vocabulary she learned in her first semester spanish class after the class has ended. The main memory process that ccounts for the fact that Shayla can hold information in her memory for extended periods of time is _____

storage

example of mnemonics?

the USA Memory Championship contestants use mnemonics for their feats. One mnemonic, the method of loci, consists of associating items you want to remember with physical locations.

what are the context-dependent memory effects?

the context of an event includes details such as the physical location, odors, and background music. That context is encoded along with the memory. As a result, the context produces a sense of familiarity that helps us retrieve the memory

what are primacy and recency effects on memory?

the primacy effect is people have better memory for items at the beginning of a list because those items are in long term storage. the recency effect: people better recall the items at the end of a list because those items are still in short-term storage. These effects indicate that there is a difference between short-term storage and long term storage

what is an explicit/declarative memory?

the system for long-term storage of conscious memories that can be verbally described

what is retrieval?

the third stage of memory, where you reaccess the information. Think of this phase as bringing to your mind a previously encoded and stored memory when it is needed, such as when you need to answer a question on your psych exam.

example of context-dependent memory effects?

two groups of scuba divers learned lists of words. Some divers learned the words on land, while others learned them under water. Later on, both groups recalled the words better when they were in the same environment that they originally learned them.

lily gets a new debit card and most memorize her password, vt0806. to remember this sequence, she thinks of vt as representing vermont. She thinks of 0806 as representing august 6th, her husbands birthday. With this combination in mind, lily remembers the password easily. She has used ______.

the working memory strategy of chunking

what kinds of interference are there when forgetting?

there is retroactive interference and proactive interference

what are flashbulb memories?

these vivid memories seem like a flash photo, capturing the circumstances in which we first learned of a surprising and consequential or emotionally arousing event.

how should you think of the storage phase?

think of it as maintaining the text material from when you read it until you take the test, or even longer.

what is encoding?

this is the first phase of memory, where your brain changes information.

what happens in the brain when memories are consolidated?

through consolidation, your experiences become your lasting memories. new neural connections should be developing, especially in your hippocampus. neural connections that support memory have become stronger, and new synapses have been constructed.

Jermone learned that it is not a good idea to skip class frequently, because he saw that his roommate failed most of his classes due to frequent skipping. Jerome benefitted from the process of ______

vicarious conditioning.

when do we use working memory?

we use this when we are working on information that we have in short-term storage.

example of explicit memory?

what did you eat for dinner last night? you can declare this memory in words, so explicit memory is sometimes refered to as declarative memory. These memories can involve words or concepts, visual images, or both.

what is an example of encoding?

what you see on the page when you are reading this text. you are taking this information in so you can use it further.

example of episodic memory:

when and where your 16th birthday occurred.

what is suggestibility?

when people are given misleading information, this information affects their memory for an event. The way that the questions is asked apparently influenced their memory for the information. The suggestibility of memories in long-term storage creates problems for one of the most powerful forms of evidence in our justice system: the eyewitness account.

when it comes to solving math problems on tests, Brandon can recall all the formulas perfectly. But as he actively works to solve a problem, he has trouble keeping track of the variables that he manipulates in his mind. This example describes how Brandom most likely has limited ______>

working memory