Chapter 8; Designing and evaluating training systems

Strategies to motivate employees to attend training

- Relate the training to an employee's immediate job. Employees are more likely to attend when the material covered in training will directly affect their immediate job performance. For example, employees would be more motivated to attend a training session on a computer program that the organization will begin using in two weeks than a training session on "Future Trends in Office Automation." Thus, training should be provided "just in time" rather than "just in case." - Make the training interesting. Employees are more likely to attend when they know they will have a good time as well as learn something useful. - Increase employee buy-in. When employees play a role in choosing and planning the types of training offered, they are more likely to attend. Employees given a choice about training programs were more motivated than employees not given a choice. Employees given a choice, but then not given the program they chose, were the least motivated. - Provide incentives. Common incentives for attending training include certificates, money, promotion opportunities, and college credit. - Provide food. - Reduce the stress associated with attending. Frequently, employees want to attend training but don't because they can't afford to take time away from their scheduled duties. To encourage employees to attend training, organizations should provide workload reductions or staffing assistance.

Chapter Summary

- The first step in the training process is to conduct a training needs assessment that includes an organizational analysis, task analysis, and person analysis. - Training methods take many forms. Classroom learning techniques include semi- nars, audiovisual aids, programmed instruction, case studies, and critical incidents. Sample job performance techniques include simulation, role-play, behavior model- ing, and job rotation. Informal training techniques include apprentice training, coaching, and performance appraisal. - Such psychological principles as modeling, distributed practice, and transfer of training must be considered when conducting a training program. - It is important to evaluate training success by measuring trainee attitudes, knowledge, ability to apply newly learned material, and improved performance.

Developing an employee training system: Steps

1) Determining Training Needs 2) Establishing Goals and Objectives 3) Choosing the Best Training Method

3 types of needs analysis are typically conducted:

1) Organizational analysis, 2) Task analysis, 3) Person analysis

Delivering the Training Program

1. Introducing the trainer and the training session Training sessions usually begin with the introduction of the trainer. This can be done by the trainer introducing himself or by another person doing the introduction. The introduction should be short and should establish the credentials of the trainer. After the introduction of the trainer, the objectives of the training seminar, the training schedule and seminar rules are covered. It's a good idea for the schedule to include a 10-minute break at the end of each hour and 1,5 hours for lunch. 2. Using icebreakers and energizers Then most training programs start with some sort of icebreaker or energizer. Types of icebreakers include the following: - Introductions such as asking each trainee to introduce the person next to him or her, or having a scavenger hunt in which trainees are given a list of questions and are asked to mingle with the other trainees to obtain answers to the questions. - Jokes or stories. - Activities in which trainees, are given a question or problem to solve. - Open-ended questions to elicit audience response and encouraged discussion. - Free writes in which audience members are asked to write about the topic. In a training seminar on dealing with difficult customers, trainees were asked to write about an angry customer they had to deal with and how they handled it 3. Delivering the presentation -> Some tips on delivering the presentation such as eye contact, effective gestures

Research Designs for Evaluation

2 factors differentiate the various methods: 1) Practicality, and the second is concerned with 2) Experimental rigor. Although scientifically rigorous research designs are preferred, their use is not always possible. Yet a practical research design without scientific rigor yields little confidence in research findings.

2. To overcome these problems, a control group should be used.

2. To overcome these problems, a control group should be used. For training purposes, a control group consists of employees who will be tested and treated in the same manner as the experimental group, except that they will not receive training. The control group will be subject to the same policy, machinery, and economic conditions as the employees in the experimental group who receive training. The big advantage this second design has is that it allows a researcher to look at the training effect after controlling for outside factors. Even though this design is an improvement on the first, it too has its drawbacks. 1. Except for training manipulation, it is almost impossible to treat a control group the same as the experimental group. Control groups often consist of workers at other plants or on other shifts at the same plant. Such groups are used because there often is no alternative. The fact that they are in different environments reduces confidence in the research findings. 2. Even if employees in the same plant on the same shift can be randomly split into control and experimental groups, problems will still exist. The most glaring of these involves the possibility that because the two groups are close to one another, the training effect for the experimental group will spill over to the control group. 3. Employees in the control group also may resent not being chosen for training. This resentment alone may lead to a decrease in performance by employees in the control group. 4) Untrained employees may pressure the newly trained employees to revert to the "old way" of doing things.

Solomon four-groups design

3. With both of the above designs, the pretest itself presents a problem. That is, the mere taking of a test may itself lead to increases in performance. Because of this, a rather complicated method called the Solomon four-groups design can be used. - 1 group will undergo training but will not take the pretest, - a 2nd group will undergo training but will take the pretest, - a 3rd group will not undergo training but will take the pretest, - a 4th group will neither undergo training nor take the pretest. This design allows a researcher not only to control for outside effects but also to control for any pretest effect. This is the most scientifically rigorous of the research designs used to evaluate training, But even this has a serious drawback: It is often not practical. That is, four groups of employees must be used, two of which do not receive training. Thus, to use this design at one organization or plant, ideally a relatively large number of employees must be available and kept from discussing the training with one another. Solomon four-groups design An extensive method of evaluating the effectiveness of training with the use of pretests, posttests, and control groups.

Pass-through programs

A formal method of coaching in which excellent employees spend a period of time in the training department learning training techniques and training employees.

Training

A planned effort by an organization to facilitate the learning of job-related behavior on the part of its employees. Training is the "systematic acquisition of skills, rules, concepts, or attitudes that result in improved performance" Training is essential for an organization; it ensures that employees have the knowledge and skills necessary to perform the job. -> In some cases, a lack of skill or knowledge is due to difficulty in hiring applicants with the necessary knowledge and skills to perform a job. Thus, training compensates for the inability to select desired applicants. -> In other cases, an employee might have the necessary skills and knowledge when hired, but jobs, technology, and laws change. Thus, employees might have the necessary knowledge and skills one year but have deficiencies by the next. In proactive organizations, training is used to teach knowledge and skills that, while not currently needed, will be needed in the future. Collectively, organizations realize the importance of training by spending more than $164 billion on it each year. -> In some organizations, training is so valuable that employee training is mentioned in the hotel's mission statement. Though most organizations value and provide organization-sponsored training, Netflix is an example of an organization that does not. It believes that employees should be responsible for their own training and professional development and thus leaves it to the employees to develop themselves. Netflix can do this because it tends to hire experienced employees who have already demonstrated their high-level skills and self-motivation.

Preparing for Classroom Training

Adjusting for the Audience The characteristics of the audience play an important role in developing a training program. A trainer must consider the size, demographics, and ability of the audience. .The ability level of the audience members is another important factor. If they are low on experience or ability, the training will need to proceed at a slower pace than if they were more experienced or more skilled. The toughest situation for a trainer is when the audience has mixed levels of ability. If the trainer sets a slow pace to help the lower-ability trainees, the higher-ability trainees become bored. If the trainer caters to the higher-ability trainees, the other trainees fall behind. For these reasons, most trainers present material at a moderate pace. The research evidence is clear that employees who perform well in training are bright, believe they can perform well (have high self-efficacy), are motivated, and are goal-oriented

1) Learning by Modeling Others

Also called social learning, modeling is a vitally important method of learning for training in organizations. Employees learn by watching how other employees perform, or model, a behavior. Modeling is astoundingly pervasive and is the basis of the behavioral modeling method of training. -> We are most likely to learn through modeling when we are unsure about how to behave. For example, in our first days on a new job, we watch how others act. Do they take only the allotted time on breaks? Do they treat customers politely? We learn how to behave at work by watching others so that we will fit in. A theory of job satisfaction hypothesizes that we even decide how satisfied we will be in our job by matching our level of job satisfaction with other employees. Modeling is most effective under certain conditions. 1) Characteristics of the Model We tend to model the behavior of people who are similar to us, who are successful, and who have status. This raises an important point about models in industry. We tend to look for a model who is similar to us. For modeling to be effective, the appropriate role models for employees should be similar to them in significant ways. That is why it is essential that a school faculty have both minority and female teachers, that an organization has both minority and female managers, and that television shows portray all types of people in different occupational roles. 2) Characteristics of the observer 1) First, the employee must pay attention to the behavior of other employees. 2) The employee must be able to retain the information that is being modeled. E.g. Even though we might have been paying close attention, there were too many behaviors to recall or retain. That is why training techniques that use modeling, concentrate on only a few behaviors at a time. 3) Employee must have the a

4) Ensure Management Is Supportive of the Training

An important factor in employee motivation to apply training is the atmosphere set by management. That is, employees are most likely to apply their new knowledge and skills if supervisors encourage and reward them to do so. E.g. the supervisor set goals, provided feedback to the employees, actively encouraged them to use their training, and herself modeled the behaviors learned in training.

(4) Application of Training

Another criterion for evaluating the effectiveness of training is the degree of application of training, or the extent to which employees actually can use the learned material. Learning and memorizing new material is one thing, and applying it is another. For example, if employees learn how to deal with angry customers, their ability to apply this material can be measured by observing how they treat an angry customer while they are actually working. Application of training is often measured through supervisor ratings or through the use of the secret shoppers.

Motivating Employees to Learn During Training - Feedback

Another essential aspect of motivating employees to learn is to provide feedback. With some tasks, feedback occurs naturally. For example, in baseball, a batter receives feedback on his swing by seeing how hard and far the ball travels. For other tasks, however, judging the correctness of a behavior without feedback is difficult. The same is true for industry training. A balance, however, must be maintained between giving too little and too much feedback. The employee will not learn if too little feedback is given. However, too much or overly detailed feedback causes frustration, and the employee will not learn at an optimal level. A final consideration for feedback concerns what type of feedback to give. Positive feedback should be given when an employee correctly performs a task during training. Praise provides an incentive to continue correct behavior. But if an employee is not performing a task correctly, should he receive negative feedback? Probably yes, even though negative feedback is more complicated than positive feedback. Negative feedback should probably also be accompanied by specific suggestions for how the employee can improve performance.

2) Learning Through Job Rotation

Another excellent on-the-job training method is job rotation, in which an employee performs several different jobs within an organization. Job rotation is especially popular for managerial training because it allows a manager trainee to experience and understand most, if not all, of the jobs within the organization that his subordinates will perform. Job rotation is also commonly used to train nonmanagerial employees. Aside from increasing employee awareness, the main advantage of job rotation is that it allows for both lateral transfers within an organization and greater flexibility in replacing absent workers Increased use of work teams is making job rotation, or cross-training, much more common. - Cross-training Teaching employees how to perform tasks traditionally performed by other employees. Another advantage is that job rotation can improve job satisfaction by reducing the boredom that often comes with a task-repetitive job. Job rotation probably works best if a corporate trainer is assigned to supervise employees throughout their rotations. Such a situation provides more stability than would occur if the employee had a different supervisor for each rotation. An interesting innovation is taking job rotation training outside the organization and encouraging employees to volunteer for worthwhile charities and nonprofit organizations. Employers report that volunteerism increases morale while also increasing employee communication, time management, and planning skills. Added benefits include increased respect for diversity, self-esteem, and social obligation (

3) Learning Through Apprentice Training

Apprentice training A training program, usually found in the craft and building trades, in which employees combine formal coursework with formal on-the-job training. -> typically found in crafts and trades such as construction, manufacturing, and plumbing. -> With apprentice training, an individual takes a minimum of 144 hours of formal class work each year and works with an expert for several (usually four) years to learn a particular trade and perhaps become eligible to join a trade union. -> Although apprenticeships are usually formal agreements between labor and management apprenticeships can also be less formal. -> E.g. an apprentice working with a plumber will initially help the plumber by carrying supplies, picking up parts from suppliers, and holding tools. With time, the apprentice is taught the necessary knowledge and skills for plumbing. When the apprenticeship is complete, the apprentice can start his own business. -> Apprenticeships are good for both the apprentice and the organization. The apprentice learns a valuable trade, and the organization can ensure that it will have highly trained employees for difficult-to-fill positions, employees that tend to stay with the employer long after the apprenticeship ends -> Despite this increased popularity, however, apprenticeship programs have been criticized for two major reasons. 1) The emphasis during the apprenticeship often is on the production of work as opposed to teaching new skills to the apprentice. 2) Unions use apprenticeships to restrict entry into their trades, which results both in inflated wages caused by high demand and a lower supply of workers, and in unfair minority hiring practices. Employers often shun apprenticeships for fear that the apprentice will become a competitor or join a competing company.

Comparing Task Analysis Results with Training Programs

As shown in Figure 8.2, the task analysis process is usually conducted by listing tasks in one column and how the tasks are learned in a second column. The hypothetical bank needs to develop training courses in dealing with difficult customers and in cross-selling because these are competencies not tapped during the selection process nor learned in current bank training programs.

Putting It All Together

As shown in Figure 8.4, the first issue to consider is whether training is the proper solution to a problem. That is, if employees already possess the necessary skills and knowledge but aren't performing well, the problem is probably one of motivation, communication, or work design rather than a lack of training. If training is to be the desired intervention, several factors will affect its success: 1) Employees must have the skills and abilities to complete the training successfully. For example, if an employee is not bright enough to learn a computer program or doesn't have the dexterity to perform intricate microelectronics assembly, no amount of training will improve his performance. 2) There should be minimal outside factors (e.g., work or family problems) that might distract the employee and keep him from concentrating on the training program. 3) Employees must be motivated to learn. That is, they must perceive that training is needed, that the training program meets their expectations, that they have the ability to complete the training (self-efficacy), and that there will be some reward (e.g., pay, career advancement) for performing well. 4) The training method (e.g., programmed instruction, behavioral modeling, lecture) must be a good match for the employee's learning style, ability, and personality. 5) The training method must be a good match for the type of material being learned (e.g., knowledge vs. a physical skill). 6) The training program must allow for goal setting, positive feedback, distributed practice, overlearning, and the chance to practice and apply the material learned (transfer of training). 7) There must be an opportunity and encouragement to use the newly acquired knowledge at work.

Asynchronous Distance Learning

Asynchronous technologies Distance learn- ing programs in which em- ployees can complete the training at their own pace and at a time of their choosing. With this method, employees are provided with media materials for learning the content and a series of exams that measure what they have learned from them. If employees do not pass the test at the end of each unit, they usually must reread the material and retake the test until they pass. In this way, employees study at their own pace, and the exams ensure that employees understand the material. With asynchronous distance learning, information can be provided to the employee in a variety of ways including printed materials, videos, DVDs, and web-based programs. To increase the effectiveness of these programs and make them more interactive, trainees often can have access to an instructor or other trainees through email, chat rooms, and message board forums. With interactive video, employees see a videotaped situation on a television, computer screen, or iPod. At the end of each situation, employees choose their response to the situation and the computer selects a video that shows what would happen based on the employee's response.

(1) Content Validity

At times, the only way that training can be evaluated is by comparing training content with the knowledge, skills, and abilities required to perform a job. In other words, the content validity of the training can be examined. For example, if a job analysis indicates that knowledge of electronic circuitry is necessary to perform a job, then a seminar that is designed to teach this knowledge would have content validity. Although content analysis may ensure that a training program is job-related, it still does not indicate whether a particular training method is effective. But if a training program is content valid and is conducted by a professional trainer who can document previous success with the method in other organizations, it may be a safe assumption that the training program will be successful. Keep in mind, however, that making such an assumption is acceptable only when actually evaluating the effect of training is not possible because there are too few employees for a proper analysis or there are financial or political constraints on conducting a proper evaluation.

4) Learning Through Coaching and Mentoring - Coaching

Coaching is another popular method of training new employees and typically takes one of two forms: experienced employees working with new employees and professional coaches who work with all employees. 1) Experienced employees A new employee is assigned to an experienced employee. After all, who knows a job better than a person who has mastered it for several years? It provides just-in-time training, flexible scheduling, customized training, and a smaller financial commitment than many other types of training. Coaching, however, has its own problems. - Good workers are not necessarily good trainers, and good trainers are not necessarily good workers. Doing a job is not the same as explaining it. The key is finding a way to identify those workers who will be good coaches or trainers. One solution has been to establish "train-the-trainer" programs, in which future trainers or coaches are taught the skills they will need to train other employees. - It diminishes the expert's productivity. While the expert shows the new employee how to do the job, his own production declines. One solution to this problem is for the organization to reward workers who do well in training new employees. Many organizations have also adopted pass-through programs, in which experienced workers are temporarily assigned to the training department. These workers are taught training techniques and then spend several months training new employees before resuming their old jobs. 2) Professional Coaches To overcome the problems mentioned here, many organizations are using "corporate coaches." Corporate coaches are similar to consultants, yet rather than working with the organization as a whole, they are hired to coach a particular employee, usually a manager. The job of a corporate coach goes beyond traditional training, as they also

5) Performance Appraisal

One of the major uses for employee performance evaluation is training. One excellent method of on-the-job training is to have a supervisor meet with an employee to discuss his strengths and weaknesses on the job. Once the weaknesses have been identified, the supervisor and employee can determine what training methods would best help the employee to improve his job knowledge or skill. Using performance appraisal for both training and determining raises and promotions can be difficult. Because: 1) The focus on salary administration is on past behavior, whereas the focus for training is on future behavior. 2) Performance appraisal for salary administration often is subjective and emotional, appraisal for training is objective and unemotional. 3) alary administration looks at overall performance, whereas training looks at detailed performance. Because of these differences, Kirkpatrick (1986) suggests the use of two separate performance appraisal systems in an organization, one for salary administration and the other for training !!!

Motivating Employees to Learn During Training - Interest

Employees will be more motivated to learn when the training program is interesting. As a result, trainers who are not effective presenters do not last long. Some training topics are naturally interesting and a trainer doesn't need to do much to spice up the material. A topic can be made interesting by making it relevant to the employees' lives, having activities, using a variety of training techniques, using humor, and maximizing audience participation.

3) Provide Employees with the Opportunity to Apply Their Training

For information learned in training to transfer to behavior on the job, employees must be given the opportunity and encouraged to apply what they have learned. Employees are more likely to be given opportunities to perform what they learned if their supervisor perceives them to be competent and the organizational climate is supportive Research indicates that many employers are neither supportive nor provide opportunities for employees to apply what is learned—especially if the training was in the form of employees going to school to work on a degree. This lack of opportunity can have negative consequences: In a study of over 9,000 employees it was found that employees who were promoted after receiving a graduate degree (given the chance to use their new knowledge) were less likely to turn over than employees who completed their degrees but were not promoted. One other method for getting employees to apply what they have learned in train- ing is to train all the employees in a work area (team) at the same time. One advantage of doing this is that because all employees have been trained, they can help and encourage each other. It sets the proper atmosphere for new employees as well as for employees tempted to go back to the old way of doing things.

Task Analysis

If the results of the organizational analysis indicate that a positive organizational climate for training exists, the next step is to conduct a task analysis. The purpose of a task analysis is to use the job analysis methods to identify the tasks performed by each employee, the conditions under which these tasks are performed, and the competencies (knowledge, skills, abilities) needed to perform the tasks under the identified conditions. The most common job analysis methods used include interviews, observations, and task inventories. If an organization has detailed and current job descriptions, the task analysis process is easy and doesn't take much time. If not, the task analysis process can be expensive and time-consuming. Once the tasks and competencies for a job have been identified, the next step is to determine how employees learn to perform each task or obtain each competency. For example, due to a rigorous employee selection process, we might expect employees to be able to perform many of the tasks at the time they are hired. Some tasks might be so simple that they can be performed without the need for previous experience or future training. For other tasks, we might have formal training programs to teach employees the necessary competencies needed to perform them.

(3) Employee Learning

Instead of using employee reactions as the criterion in evaluating training performance, actual employee learning can usually be measured. That is, if a training program is designed to increase employee knowledge of communication techniques, then creating a test to determine whether an employee actually learned is possible. This test will be administered before training and then again after the training has been completed. The measurements that will be used for the pretest and posttest, as with selection tests, must be both reliable and valid. Thus, if the purpose of a training program is to increase job knowledge, an appropriate job knowledge test must be constructed or purchased. A trainer can spend a great deal of time creating a training program and evaluating its effectiveness, but the whole training effort will be wasted if the measure used to evaluate effectiveness is no good. At times, reliable and valid measures of training effectiveness are difficult to obtain. Perhaps a good example of this is seen with the human relations seminars that are common to training programs. Typically, an outside consultant conducts a seminar on a topic such as "better communication skills" or "calming irate customers." A seminar may run from two hours to two days in length. Once completed, however, it is important to measure the effectiveness of the seminar training.

3. How long will it be?

It is an interesting dilemma. From a cost-efficiency perspective, it is better to conduct a weeklong training session rather than divide the training into 10 half-day sessions spread over a one-month period. However, from an interest perspective, few employees enjoy attending 40 hours of training in a week. For the highest level of learning, training material should be presented in small, easily remembered chunks distributed over a period of time (distributed learning) rather than learned all at once (massed learning). As shown in a meta-analysis by Donovan and Radosevich (1999), if too much training occurs at one time, employees will not be able to pay attention to all that is being taught or be able to remember that on which they did concentrate. Consequently, training performance will be lower when training is massed rather than distributed. The best example of the principle of massed practice versus distributed practice is studying for exams.

Using Lectures to Provide Knowledge

Lectures are a good training source if the goal is for employees to obtain knowledge, but unless they are accompanied by such techniques as simulations and role-plays, they are not usually effective at teaching skills. Putting together a lecture-based training program can take a lot of time. The trainer must research a topic, develop a training outline, create visuals (e.g., PowerPoint slides), create handouts, and obtain or create supporting materials such as DVDs and role-play exercises. An important part of any training presentation is the handouts to the audience. The purpose of them is to provide material that the trainees can take back to their jobs. People forget about half the training content once they leave the room and then forget another 25% within 48 hours Handouts should include -> a cover sheet with the title of the training program, the date and location of the training; -> a list of goals and objectives; -> a schedule for the training (e.g., breaks, ending times); -> a biographical sketch of the trainer; -> the notes themselves in outline form, full text, or copies of the PowerPoint slides; -> activity sheets such as personality inventories, free writes, or group activity information; -> references and suggestions for further reading; -> a form to evaluate the quality of the training program. For financial and environmentally conscious reasons, many organizations now provide "handouts" on a memory stick or post them on an accessible website. -> financial, environmental, and storage advantages, -> more difficult to take notes unless the trainees bring laptops or iPads into the training program.

4) Learning Through Coaching and Mentoring - Mentoring

Mentor An experienced employee who advises and looks out for a new employee. Mentoring is a form of coaching that has recently received much attention. A mentor is a veteran in the organization who takes a special interest in a new employee and helps him not only to adjust to the job but also to advance in the orga- nization. Typically, mentors are older and at least one level or position above the employee being mentored. As with coaching, not all employees make good mentors; thus, both the mentor and the mentor-employee match must be carefully chosen. However, meta-analysis results indicate that, in general, having a mentor is beneficial to an employee's career. Interestingly, a study of 609 mentoring relationships found that mentoring was more effective when the relationship was informal rather than formal.

1st step: Determining Training Needs

Needs analysis The process of determining the training needs of an organization. Conducting a needs analysis is the first step in developing an employee training system. The purpose of needs analysis is to determine the types of training, if any, that are needed in an organization, as well as the extent to which training is a practical means of achieving an organization's goals. A meta-analysis indicated increased training effectiveness when a needs assessment had been done prior to the creation of the training program.

Using Case Studies to Apply Knowledge

Once employees have received the information they need through lecture, they must be able to apply what they have learned. One way: A case study. Case studies are similar to leaderless group discussions and situational interview problems, and are considered to be good sources for developing analysis, synthesis, and evaluation skills. -> The members of a group each read a case, which is either a real or hypothetical situation typical of those encountered on the job. The group then discusses the case, identifies possible solutions, evaluates the advantages and disadvantages of each solution, and arrives at what it thinks is the best solution to the problem. For case studies to be most successful, they should be taken from actual situations (realistic). Living case A case study based on a real situation rather than a hypothetical one. This use of a living case was found to be superior to the typical case study. Not only was the problem relevant, but also the solution could be used, thus providing an incentive for the trainees to take the training program seriously. A drawback to the living case study, however, is that trainees may not be the best individuals to solve the problem. Case studies should be interesting. -> They are best when they are written in the form of a story, contain dialogue between the characters, use realistic details, are descriptive and easy to follow, contain all information necessary to solve the problem, and are difficult enough to be challenging -> To increase the effectiveness of case studies, trainees should first be taught the principles involved in solving a particular type of problem, helped to use them in discussing the case, and then have the principles reinforced after reading the case study. -> If the key principles are not taught and reinforced, trainees tend to focus too m

3rd step: Choosing the Best Training Method

Once goals and objectives have been established, the next step in developing a training program is to choose the training method that will best accomplish those goals and objectives. For example, if the goal is for employees to learn an actual skill, some type of hands-on training will be necessary (e.g., role-plays, simulations). Because most training programs have multiple goals and objectives, the best training programs often use a variety of methods so that employees will understand the reasons for doing a certain task, how it should be done, and in what situations it should be done.

2nd step: Establishing Goals and Objectives

Once the needs analyses have been conducted, the next step is to establish the goals and objectives for the training. The importance of this process cannot be emphasized enough, as the training goals will determine the resources allocated to the training, the methods used to deliver the training, and the methods used to evaluate the success of the training. -> Important to first determine what the organization wants to accomplish, given the time and resources that will be allocated to the training. -> For example, if your organizational analysis indicated that due to financial and time constraints, a four-hour training session is all that it can afford to teach its supervisors conflict management skills, don't establish the goal that supervisors be able to mediate conflicts between employees (a skill). Instead, a more reasonable goal might be that by the end of the four-hour training, supervisors will be able to identify the common causes of conflict (knowledge). Training goals and objectives should concretely state: - What learners are expected to do - The conditions under which they are expected to do it - The level at which they are expected to do it Vague objectives such as "to be a better salesperson" should be replaced with specific objectives such as increasing customer contacts by 10% and increasing new accounts by 5%. Goal statements usually include an action word, an item, a condition, and a standard. E.g.: - By the end of this training session, you will be able to answer (action word) customer questions about loan rates (item) without asking others (condition) 90% of the time (standard). - By the end of this training session, you will be able to balance (action word) the teller drawer (item) without assistance (condition) in 30 minutes with no errors (standard). - By the end of this training

Delivering the Training Program

Once the training program has been created, there are three broad methods of delivering the training: (1) in the classroom, (2) through distance learning, (3) on the job.

Motivating Employees to Attend Training

Once the training program has been developed, the next step is to motivate employ- ees to attend the training. The most obvious way to "motivate" employees to attend training is to require them to attend training "on the clock." However, the majority of training opportunities are optional, and 10% of training opportunities take place on the employee's own time

2) Conducting Training Through Distance Learning

One disadvantage of traditional classroom instruction is that all employees must be taught at the same pace and in the same location. This is unfortunate because some employees are brighter or more experienced than others and will be bored if a training seminar moves too slowly. Other employees, however, will become frustrated if the seminar goes too quickly. To allow employees to learn material at their own pace, at a time and place that is convenient to them, many organizations are using some form of distance learning. Distance learning technologies can generally be placed into one of the two broad categories: asynchronous or synchronous. With asynchronous technologies, employees can complete the training at their own pace and at a time of their choosing. Synchronous technologies require employees to complete the training at the same time and the same pace, although they may be in different physical locations.

Evaluation of Training Results

One important characteristic of industrial psychology is its reliance on research. Evaluating training results is a good example of this reliance. Because training programs can be costly in both time and money, it is essential that they be evaluated to determine if they can be improved, should continue to be offered, and whether they significantly increase performance or affect positive changes in behavior

Increasing Interpersonal Skills Through Behavior Modeling

One of the most successful training methods has been behavior modeling Behavior modeling A training technique in which employees observe correct behavior, practice that behavior, and then receive feedback about their performance. -> Similar to role-play but trainees role-play ideal behavior rather than the behavior they might normally perform. -> It begins with a discussion of a problem, why it occurred, and the employee behaviors necessary to correct the problem. These behaviors are called learning points and are essentially rules to follow in solving a problem. -> Next, trainees view videos of employees correctly and incorrectly solving the problem. The trainees take notes during the video and are allowed to ask questions. -> After viewing the video, trainees mentally rehearse the solution to the problem in the way that the employee solved it on the video. -> Finally, employees role-play (behaviorally rehearse) situations and receive feedback on their performances. -> Employees are also allowed to play the role of the "other" person so that they will gain the same insight they would have by role-play training. -> Employees then discuss ways to apply their new skills on the job. By this procedure, employees will already have had experience dealing with the problem in the proper way when they encounter the same situation on the job. In other words, positive transfer of learning will have occurred. The videos must represent commonly encountered problems and situations—thus demonstrating the importance of a thorough job analysis. Should employees be trained on specific situational skills or on generic skills that will cover any situation. A specific situational skill would be handling a bank customer who is angry about a bounced check. The related generic skill would be calming any angry customer. Gener

Employee performance can be improved in many ways.

One way to have high employee performance is to select employees with the necessary knowledge and skills. Another way to improve employee performance is to train employees who have the ability to perform the job but might not have the knowledge, skills, or motivation to perform the job.

3) Conducting On-the-Job Training

Over 60% of employee training is OJT. OJT is informal training by experienced peers and supervisors that occurs on the job and during job tasks. OJT works best for teaching skills that require supervision to learn, are best learned through repetition, and benefit from role modeling. 1) Learning by Modeling Others 2) Learning Through Job Rotation 3) Learning Through Apprentice Training 4) Learning Through Coaching and Mentoring + Performance Apprisal

(1) Performance appraisal score

Performance appraisal score A rating representing some aspect of an employee's work performance. -> Perhaps the easiest method of needs analysis -> Low ratings on a particular dimension for most employees may indicate that additional training in that dimension is needed. -> If most employees score high on a particular dimension, relatively little training time is needed. For example, as can be seen in Table 8.1, the bank employees as a whole need little training in loan processing or data entry, but they do need further training in cross-selling, customer relations, and keeping accurate teller drawers. But even though most employees can accurately process loans, Fernandez needs further training in this area; both Abbott and Harrigan probably can skip the training in teller drawer accuracy. Using performance appraisal scores appears fairly easy as a method of needs assessment, there are 3 problems: 1) Several types of rating errors can reduce the accuracy of performance appraisal scores. The most relevant here are leniency errors and strictness errors. If there's leniency error, a human resources professional might incorrectly conclude that employees are proficient in something and thus need no training. Likewise, consistently low scores might be interpreted as a need for training when the actual cause of the low scores is rater error (strictness error). 2) Rarely do all employees score either high or low on a dimension. It is more common for only a few employees to score poorly. In this case, a person examining the average performance appraisal scores might conclude that training in a particular dimension is unnecessary. But that conclusion would be only partially correct. Not everyone needs training in that dimension, but concluding that training should not be conducted would be incorrect. The correct interpr

Person Analysis

Person analysis The process of identifying the employees who need training and determining the areas in which each individual employee needs to be trained. The third and final step in the needs analysis process is determining which employees need training and in which areas. It is based on the recognition that not every employee needs further training for every task performed. A person analysis should also include an evaluation of an employee's readiness for the training. Does the employee have the ability and motivation to successfully complete the training? To determine the individual training needs of each employee, person analysis uses (1) performance appraisal scores, (2) surveys, (3) interviews, (4) skill and knowledge tests, and/or (5) critical incidents.

(1) Conducting Classroom Training

Prior to conducting classroom training, several decisions need to be made by an organization: 1. Who will conduct the training? 2. Where will it be held? 3. How long should it be?

Most asynchronous distance learning training takes advantage of the concept of programmed instruction.

Programmed instruction is effective because it takes advantage of several important learning principles: 1) Learning is self-paced—that is, each trainee proceeds at his own pace. When the presentation speed of the material does not parallel the comprehension speed of the learner, frustration occurs, and the material will not be learned as well as it might. 2) Each trainee is actively involved in the learning. This contrasts sharply with the lecture method, where the employee might sit through two hours of lecture without being actively involved. 3) Programmed instruction presents information in small units or chunks because learning smaller amounts of material is easier than learning larger amounts. A meta-analysis by Manson (1989) concluded that programmed instruction can lead to improved performance at a relatively low cost, and a meta-analysis by Allen, Mabry, Mattrey, Bourhis, Titsworth, and Burrell (2004) found that test scores for students in distance learning classes were no different from those earned by students in traditional courses.

Motivating Employees to Learn During Training - Incentives

Providing Incentives for Learning Employees motivated to learn perform better in training than their less motivated counterparts - This motivation to learn is often related to the perception that there is an incentive (e.g., a pay raise or job advancement) to learning. An electronics assembler who is taking a course in electronics will probably not study and learn unless he sees how that knowledge will improve his performance enough to result in a desirable outcome, as a salary increase or chance of promotion. Types of incentives that motivate learning include money, job security, self-improvement, advancement, fun (an interesting training program), and opportunity to enter a new career. The incentives can be made contingent on a variety of factors, including completion of a training course, demonstration of new knowledge, demonstration of a new skill, or an increase in actual job performance. A common financial incentive method is skill-based pay, which is used by 14% of major U.S. organizations (Mercer Consulting, 2009). With skill-based pay, an employee participates in a training program that is designed to increase a particular skill an employee needs either to be promoted or to receive a pay raise. The employees must be able to demonstrate their mastery of the newly taught skill rather than just attend training sessions. Where promotion is not possible, pay increases alone are given to employees who master new skills. There are four common skill-based pay plans. 1)Vertical skill plans pay for skill in a single job, 2) Horizontal skill plans focus on skills used across multiple jobs, 3) Depth skill plans reward employees for learning specialized skills, 4) Basic skill plans focus on such basic skills as math and English Skill-based pay not only provides incentives for employees to successfully com

(4) Skill and Knowledge Tests

Skill test A test that measures an employee's level of some job-related skill. Knowledge test A test that measures the level of an em- employee's knowledge about a job-related topic. The fourth way to determine training needs is with a skill test or a knowledge test. Some examples of areas that could be tested to determine training needs include knowledge of lending laws for loan officers, knowledge of company policy for new employees, and the dreaded midterm exam for this course. If all employees score poorly on these tests, training across the organization is indicated. If only a few employees score poorly, they are singled out for individual training. The greatest problem with using testing as a method to determine training needs is that relatively few tests are available for this purpose. An organization that wants to use this method will probably have to construct its own tests, and proper test construction is time-consuming and expensive.

(2) Surveys

Surveys Questionnaires asking employees about the areas in which they feel they need training. -> A common approach to determine training needs is to design and administer a survey that asks employees what knowledge and skills they believe should be included in future training. Surveys offer several advantages. 1) They eliminate the problems of performance rating errors, which were discussed previously. 2) Employees often know their strengths and weaknesses best. Thus, to determine what employees need, ask them. 3) Training needs can be determined with surveys, even when the organization has not previously made an effort to design an effective performance appraisal system or adequate job descriptions. The main disadvantages: - Employees may not be honest - The organization may not be able to afford the training suggested by the employees. As with any type of survey, training needs surveys can be conducted in many ways. The most common method is a questionnaire that asks employees to list the areas in which they would like further or future training. Perhaps a better method is to provide a list of job-related tasks and components of knowledge and have employees rate the need for training on each. The results of these ratings are given to supervisors, who then "validate" the results. This process is used to determine whether the supervisors agree with their employees' perceptions and to prioritize training needs.

Synchronous Distance Learning

Synchronous technologies Distance learn- ing programs that require employees to complete the training at the same time and at the same pace although they may be in different physical locations. Synchronous Distance Learning Rather than using printed or prerecorded materials for distance learning, many train- ing programs are conducted live where the trainer communicates to an audience that might be "attending" over the phone, through the Internet, or by satellite TV. Fast-growing sources of synchronous distance learning are teleconferences, webinars, and webcasts. Webinars (short for web-based seminar) and webcasts are training programs transmitted over the web. The difference between the two is that a webinar is interactive whereas a webcast involves one-way communication from the trainer. With a teleconference, trainees are sent a PowerPoint presentation that they view on their computer while the trainer conducts the audio portion of the training over the phone. As with webinars, teleconferences can be interactive in nature. Another fast-growing source of synchronous distance learning is interactive, online communities of learning such as blogs, wikis, and listservs. With each of these methods, rather than waiting for an annual conference or scheduled training program, employees can ask questions, get immediate answers, post opinions, and share information with others in similar fields. Meta-analysis indicates that distance learning techniques are at least as effective as classroom training and their effectiveness increases when learners can control the pace of the learning and when feedback is given regarding the learner's progress Webinar: Interactive training method in which training is transmitted over the Internet. Webcast: A noninteractive training method in which the trainer transmits training in

As with college lectures, many activities can take place within a seminar, including lecture, the use of videos, discussion, and question-and-answer periods.

The choice of activities depends on the task or skill to be taught. If the skill is complicated, such as operating a machine or dealing with an angry customer, lecture alone will not be enough. The seminar should also include some type of practice or role-play. If the information is not complicated but involves such visual material as building locations, flowcharts, or diagrams, visual aids should be added to the lecture. If the material covered is not comprehensive or if the feelings of the employees toward the material are important, then discussion should be included. Discussion not only helps further learning but also allows employees to feel that their opinions are important.

(5) Business Impact

The fifth criterion that can be used to evaluate a training program's effectiveness is business impact. Business impact is determined by evaluating whether the goals for training were met. For example, a restaurant such as Buffalo Wild Wings conducts a training program designed to increase sales of top-shelf liquor. A week after the training, if sales of liquors such as Knob Creek bourbon and Absolut vodka increase, and sales of liquors such as Pepe Lopez tequila and Aristocrat vodka decrease, the training would be considered successful because it has had the desired business impact.

(5) Critical Incidents

The fifth method for determining training needs is the critical-incident technique. Although not a commonly used method, it will be discussed here because it is relatively easy to use, especially if a proper job analysis is available. To use this technique for needs assessment, the critical incidents are sorted into dimensions and separated into examples of good and poor performance. Dimensions with many examples of poor performance are considered to be areas in which many employees are performing poorly and in which additional training is indicated.

1) Use Realistic Training Programs

The more similar the training situation is to the actual job situation, the more effective training will be. This principle is extremely important when a training program is being chosen or designed. An excellent example of making training more realistic comes from the French police. After examining the use of force by officers, found that officers most often use their weapons at night, when they are tired after many hours on their shift. Training in the use of weapons, however, was conducted in the morning, when cadets first started their day. To ensure better transfer of training, shooting simulations are now being conducted during both the day and the evening hours. Employees will also be motivated to apply what they learned in training if the training program has a reputation among them as being effective and useful

(2) Employee Reactions

The most commonly used method to evaluate training is measuring employee reactions to the training. Employee reactions involve asking employees if they enjoyed the training and learned from the training. These ratings tend to be most influenced by the trainer's style and the degree of interaction in the training program but are also influenced by the motivation of the trainee prior to training as well as perceptions of organizational support for the training Employee reactions are important because employees will not have confidence in the training and will not be motivated to use it if they do not like the training process. However, even though positive employee reactions are necessary for training to be successful, positive employee reactions do not mean that training will lead to changes in knowledge or performance Because trainee reactions constitute the lowest level of training evaluation, they can often be misleading. For example, most seminars conducted by outside consultants are informative and well presented, so employee reactions are almost always positive, even though the training may not actually affect knowledge or future performance. For example, in a meta-analysis employee reactions had only a small correlation with learning and application of training.

1. Organizational Analysis

The process of determining the organizational factors that will either facilitate or inhibit training effectiveness. -> The purpose of organizational analysis is to determine those organizational factors that either facilitate or inhibit training effectiveness. For example, an organization may view training as important but may not have the money to fund its training program, may be unable to afford the employee time away from work to be trained, or may not wish to spend money on training because employees leave the organization after a short time. A properly conducted organizational analysis will focus on the goals the organization wants to achieve, the extent to which training will help achieve those goals, the organization's ability to conduct training (e.g., finances, physical space, time), and the extent to which employees are willing and able to be trained (e.g., ability, commitment, motivation, stress) An organizational analysis should include a survey of employee readiness for training. Training will be effective only if the organization is willing to provide a supportive climate for training, it can afford an effective program, that employees want to learn, and the goals of a program are consistent with those of the organization.

(6) Return on Investment

The sixth criterion for evaluating the success of a training program is return on investment (ROI). That is, after accounting for the cost of the training, did the organization actually save money? For example, imagine that a bank trains its tellers to cross-sell Visa cards. The tellers rate the training session as being enjoyable (employee reactions), all of the employees pass a test on sales techniques (knowledge), and sales attempts increase by 30% (application). The ROI approach would then ask, "If we spent $5,000 training the tellers, how much more revenue was brought in as a result of the training?" If the answer to the question is more than the amount spent on training, then the program would be considered a success.

(3) Interviews

The third method of needs analysis is the interview, which is usually done with a selected number of employees. Interviews are not used as extensively as surveys, but they can yield even more in-depth answers to questions about training needs. The main advantage of interviews is that employee feelings and attitudes are revealed more clearly than with the survey approach. The main disadvantage of interviews is that interview data are often difficult to quantify and analyze.

5) Have Employees Set Goals

The use of knowledge and skills learned in training can also be encouraged by having employees set goals. E.g. Each teller might set a goal of daily asking four credit union members if they would like information about one of the new products. Goal setting works best when goals are individually set by each employee, are concrete rather than vague, and are high enough to be challenging but not so difficult as to be impossible.

There are three considerations in choosing an icebreaker:

There are three considerations in choosing an icebreaker: 1) The goal of the ice-breaker, 2) The length of the training session, and 3) The nature of the audience. For an icebreaker to be successful, it must accomplish a goal. The most common goals for icebreakers are to get people to know one another, to get them talking, to wake them up, and to get them thinking about the topic. -> To be successful, it must accomplish a goal. The most common goals for icebreakers are to get people to know one another, to get them talking, to wake them up, and to get them thinking about the topic. For example, introductions work well when it is important that the audience members know one another, and free writes work well when the goal is to get the audience thinking about a topic. Having an icebreaker for the sake of having an icebreaker is not a good idea. If the training session will last only a few hours, the icebreaker should be short—if one is even used. If the training session will last an entire week, time should be spent on introductions and "group bonding" activities. Certain types of icebreakers work better with some audiences than they do with others. For example, having a group of trainees introduce themselves by saying their name and a trait starting with the first letter of their name is not likely to go over as well with a group of police officers as it might with a group of social workers.

1. The most simple and practical of research designs implements a training program and then determines whether significant change is seen in the performance of job knowledge.

To use this method, performance or job knowledge must be measured twice. The first measurement, a pretest, is taken before the implementation of training. The second measurement, a posttest, is taken after the training program is complete. A diagram of this simple pretest-posttest design is as follows: Although this method is fairly simple, its findings are difficult to interpret because there is no control group against which the results can be compared. Without a control group, that interpretation is not necessarily correct.

2. Where will the training be held?

Training can be offered on-site or at an off-site location such as a hotel, university, or conference center. The advantage of conducting training on-site is that it is less expensive. However, many organizations have neither the space nor the equipment needed for on-site training. Holding training off-site has the advantage of getting the employees away from the work site and allowing them to concentrate on their training.

1. Who will conduct the training?

Training seminars can be conducted by a variety of sources including in-house trainers who are employees of the organization, outside trainers who contract with the organization, videos, and local universities. In-house trainers are used when a training program will be presented too frequently to justify the cost of an outside trainer or when the training topic is so specific to the organiza- tion that finding outside trainers would be difficult. External trainers are used when the trainers in an organization lack expertise on a particular topic or when the cost of internally developing a training program exceeds the cost of contracting with an external trainer. Tens of thousands of training consultants around the country offer seminars to industry. Needs analysis, however, must be used to determine whether such semi- nars are actually necessary. Rather than using actual trainers, many organizations use videos as part of their training programs. Videos have a clear economic advantage over live lecture when the training session is to be repeated many times. With videos, organizations have the option of purchasing an actual copy of the video or downloading the video "on demand" from the many vendors specializing in training videos. Many organizations use local colleges and universities to handle their training needs. The advantages of using colleges and universities are lower costs, access to excellent training facilities, access to well-known faculty, and the potential for employees to receive college credit for completing the training. Local universities are typically used for technical (e.g., electronics, computer programming) and leadership training and are most appropriate when only a few employees need training at any given time and the cost of setting up a training lab is prohibitive. A good example o

2) Have Opportunities to Practice Work-Related Behavior During the Training

Transfer of training is increased by having the trainee practice the desired behavior as much as possible. Such practice is especially important for tasks that will not be performed on a daily basis after training has been completed. For example, if a firefighter is learning to perform CPR, he must overlearn the task through constant practice. This overlearning is essential because it may be months before the firefighter will practice what he has learned. In contrast, once our electronics assembler learns a task during training, it is time for him to move to another task. Overlearning is not necessary for the coil winder because he will perform the task every hour, once the training has been completed. A meta-analysis by Driskell, Willis, and Copper (1992) indicates that overlearning significantly increases retention of training material. Finally, to further increase the transfer of training, practice in as many different situations as possible should be provided. E.g. we might have our electronics assembler wind coils as fast as possible, wind them slowly, and wind them in various sizes. The employee will be better able to deal with any changes that occur in the job. Overlearning Practicing a task even after it has been mastered in order to retain learning.

Evaluation Criteria

We discussed research designs for evaluating training. In each design, a pretest and posttest were included. This section will discuss the types of criteria that can be used for these pretests and posttest. 6 levels at which training effectiveness can be measured: (1) content validity, (2) employee reactions, (3) employee learning, (4) application of training, (5) business impact, and (6) return on investment

Practicing Interpersonal Skills Through Role-Play

Whereas simulations are effective for learning how to use new equipment or software programs, role-play allows the trainee to perform necessary interpersonal skills by acting out simulated roles. Role-play is used in many types of training situations, from supervisors practicing performance appraisal reviews to sales clerks taking customer orders. One interesting variation of the role-play exercise has an employee playing the role of "the other person." For example, a supervisor might play the role of an employee, or a sales clerk might play the role of a customer who is frustrated with recently purchased merchandise. In this way, the employee can better understand the reasoning and feelings of the people with whom he works. Though role-plays allow employees to practice what is being taught, they are not for everyone. Many employees feel uneasy and embarrassed about being required to "act." This reluctance can be reduced to some extent by using warm-up exercises and praising employees after they participate. Farber (1994) thinks that role-play should be replaced by "real play," in which employees practice their skills on actual customers. For example, salespeople can be trained by having the sales staff sit around a conference table and take turns making calls to actual/potential customers. The group then discusses the technique of the person making the call.

Ensuring Transfer of Training

When an organization spends time and money on training, it expects that the knowledge and skills will be transferred to the job. Unfortunately, this is often not the case. There are several strategies for increasing the transfer of training to the workplace. 1) Use Realistic Training Programs 2) Have Opportunities to Practice Work-Related Behavior During the Training 3) Provide Employees with the Opportunity to Apply Their Training 4) Ensure Management Is Supportive of the Training 5) Have Employees Set Goals Transfer of training The extent to which behavior learned in training will be performed on the job.

Using Simulation Exercises to Practice New Skills

Whereas case studies are effective in applying knowledge and learning problem-solving skills, simulation exercises allow the trainee to practice newly learned skills. Simulation An exercise designed to place an applicant in a situation that is similar to the one that will be encountered on the job. They have the advantage of allowing the trainee to work with equipment under actual working conditions without the consequences of mistakes. - For example, using a cash register or taking a customer's order is easy to learn. But it is a much more difficult task with a long line of angry customers or irritable coworkers. Simulation exercises allow the trainee to feel such pressure without actually affecting the organization's performance. Like all training methods, simulation exercises come in many different forms. Some, such as airline simulators, are extremely expensive and complex to use, but others, such as a simulated restaurant counter, are relatively inexpensive. Whatever the method used, a simulation exercise can be effective only if it physically and psychologically simulates actual job conditions. Although most simulators do not exactly replicate actual physical and psychological job conditions, they are still better than the single alternatives of either lecture or actual practice: -> A meta-analysis found that employees trained with simulations learned more and retained more than employees trained using such techniques as lecture or reading. -> Furthermore, training a pilot is cheaper on a simulator than on a passenger jet, and it is safer (for humans) for a medical student to practice on a pig than on a sick patient. -> Rapid advances in virtual reality technology hold tremendous promise for trainers. Virtual reality is already used to train soldiers, surgeons, air traffic controllers, and police