Chapter 8: Memory and Information Processing LIFESPAN

Recall

-Bauer et al.--> infants can recall a series of events 13 months remembered for 3 months 16-20 months remembered for 12 months -Ex: having a teddy bear and putting them to bed, changing their clothes, etc. -Infants remember best when: They have repeated exposures They are given plenty of cues Events they must remember occur in a meaningful or logical order

Memory Strategies

-By 2 years, children will deliberately try to remember things -Ex: repeating, talking to themselves, gestures or pointing -Rehearsal Repeating items in memory -Organization Classifying items into meaningful groups Ex: grouping animals and fruits together -Elaboration Actively creating meaningful links between items to be remembered Ex: developing a story or making a sentence -Rehearsal emerges first, then organization, and then elaboration

Reasons for childhood amnesia

-Limited space in working memory -Lack of language--> your memories before you can talk are stored in a non-verbal way--> maybe since we're verbal now, we have a hard time accessing those non-verbal memories -Lack of sense of self--> we don't know that an event we're experiencing may be significant for us -Store verbatim memories rather than gist memories--> kids store a memory exactly how it happened (verbatim), but as adults we store memories as gist memories (we generally know what happens but no specifics)

Basic Capacities

-Little change in long-term memory and sensory memory -Significant improvements in short-term (working memory) Speed of processing increases

4 stages of strategy development

-Mediation deficiency Do not use or benefit from strategies -Production deficiency Failure to produce a strategy -Utilization deficiency Spontaneously produce a strategy, but does not benefit memory Children trying to use a strategy takes up a lot of their cognitive functioning and resources so they might not be able to reach the task -Effective strategy use

Knowledge base continues to expand during adolescence

Metamemory and metacognition improve Adolescent girls consistently report using more metacognitive strategies than boys Students from higher socioeconomic backgrounds report more use of metacognitive strategies

implicit memory

Occurs unintentionally, automatically, and without awareness such as Procedural memory-How do we know how to ride a bike. Infallible; remains intact. Unintentional and automatic. Skills, conditioned learning, associative memory. Stable through lifespan. Less affected by aging and Alzheimer's Disease

Older and younger children do not differ in terms of sensory register or long-term memory capacity

Older children -Use more effective memory strategies, they Know more about memory, and have a larger memory base.

Explaining Declines in Older Adults. Negative beliefs affect memory skills. Strategy use is not spontaneous. Attention becomes more effortful (motivation)

Processing speed decreases in response to ambiguous questions. Sensory, health, and lifestyle changes. Cohort differences. Declines are not universal

Explicit memory

Requires Conscious retrieval of information Involves deliberate, effortful recollection of events - requires Recall versus recognition Declarative memory Fallible; subject to forgetting Affected by aging and Alzheimer's Disease

recall vs. recognition memory

*recall*: ability to retrieve and reproduce information encountered earlier (fill in the blank or essay) *recognition*: ability to identify information you have previously seen read, or heard about (TF/MC)

Childhood

-4 reasons why memory improves: Changes in basic capacities Changes in memory strategies Increased knowledge about memory Increased knowledge about the world

Metacognition

awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes. thinking about thinking

longterm memory

explicit and implicit

Memory in Children

have a tendency to make Perseveration errors

Older adults

learn more slowly and remember less learned information - Not everyone but many

Recall vs. recognition

recall is harder than recognition and it starts declining first.

Memory Declines Begin around age 60 or 70

slight declines at first in Short term memory & working memory and the ability to remember details (they're more focused on the gist of the data or the main point or meanings)

Parallel processing

the carrying out of multiple cognitive activities simultaneously, such as trying to remember your combination lock numbers while keeping the tried combinations in your head at the same time as trying new combinations on your visiospatial sketchpad, to narrow down the right combination

They continue to use the same strategy that was successful in the past despite the strategy's current lack of success, such as looking for a lost item in the same place it was found last time, even though it's not there

these kidssss memory

Childhood Amnesia

-Few autobiographical memories of events that occurred during the first few years of life -This is expected -Typically before 3 is when people normally don't remember--> the memories we do have around that time or normally vague or big events (ex: a hospital visit, birth of a sibling, death)

Infants

-Newborns seem to imitate some actions -Infants as young as six months display deferred imitation Ability to imitate a novel act after a delay Early form of explicit memory

Memory

-Our ability to store and later retrieve information

Infants remember best when:

-They have repeated exposures -They are given plenty of cues -events occur in a meaningful or logical order

Operant Conditioning

-Tied a rope to a babies ankle that was connected to a little mobile music playing device and she would bring the babies back weeks later to see if they're still kick their ankle when their ankle wasn't tied to a rope -Results: 3 months remember for 1 week 6 months remember for 2 weeks 18 months remember for 3 months -Early memories are cue-dependence and context-specific--> they need a cue (a reminder), they also have to be in the same exact crib and area (context) to remember

cohort

A group of individuals of the same age.

Recall 2.0

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

Infants as young as six months display deferred imitation

Ability to imitate a novel act after a delay, which clearly requires memory ability.

Adolescents use

Executive control processes to guide the selection, organization, manipulation, and interpretation of information throughout Problem Solving situations

Infants can overcome obstacles to achieve desired goals

Increasingly pay attention to the cues provided by adults. Increasingly solicit help by pointing, reaching, or letting the adult know that assistance is needed

Infant Memory

Infants as young as six months display deferred imitation. Pure recall by about 9 months. Infants can overcome obstacles to achieve desired goals

Age-related processing speed declines leads to poorer performance on timed memory tests, which are very common

Information can be encoded but can't retrieve without cues OR maybe it was never correctly encoded

Adolescents perform cognitive operations faster than children do

They have greater functional use of their working memory but there are no differences between children and adolescents on tasks of low complexity. Face recognition is easier too

implicit and explicit

These two types of memory are independent of one another. Explicit memory increases in capacity from infancy through adulthood then declines, while implicit memory capacity is constant across the lifespan

Selection- Older adults have a reduced capacity and loss of functioning (this means that older adults will see a reduction in performance in most life domains such as in physical abilities and speed of movement, mental processing, reaction time performance, memory recall, etc.)

They may have slower reaction times while driving, difficulty learning new material in a short period of time, and diminished ability to walk as fast or lift heavy items. They will need to select which function they want to work on (Ex. Using pill organizers to help remember to take medicines or if having difficulty reading- they can use a magnifying machine to read)

Problem Solving for Older Adults

Unfamiliar tasks are more difficult. Meaningfulness problematic to solution creation-may not be motivated to find solution. Everyday functioning is maintained

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

antegrade amnesia

a person loses memories for events that occur after the injury

Selective Optimization with Compensation Theory

a theory based on the idea that successful personal development throughout the life course and subsequent mastery of the challenges associated with everyday life are based on the components of selection, optimization, and compensation

Perseveration errors

an inability to switch ideas along with the social context, as evidenced by the repetition of actions, words or gestures after they have ceased to be socially relevant or appropriate

Compensation

becomes relevant when life tasks require a level of capacity beyond the current level of the older adult's performance potential. Loss-based selection denotes the restructuring of one's goal system, for example, by giving up unattainable goals and developing new ones. So instead of a goal to run a marathon, to just walk a 5K and build from there. (Ex. Going out to eat would take the place of cooking a meal and hiring a cleaning service can help keep your home clean and safe)

retrograde amnesia

loss of memories from our past

Optimization

making the best or most efficient use of a situation, product, or resource. it is possible to maintain performance in some areas through practice and use of new technologies, so listening to books on CD can optimize your performance learning new material more than reading with difficulty due to eye strain. Instead of cooking meals, microwaving frozen dinners or pizza's or putting sandwiches together with chips can optimize meal preparation.

Metamemory

understanding of processes of memory. knowledge about memory