Chapter 8 Polynesia

What is the season long festival for Lono called? What happens during the festival?

- "Makahiki" during this the Hawaiian King, who is associated with Ku, is ritually defeated. - During the Makahiki, an image of Lono tours the island, gets worshipped, and collects taxes.

How does this idea of Makahiki explain why Cook was killed?

- Because Cook arrived in the middle of the Makahiki, the Hawaiians perceived him as Lono. - So Cook took part in the rituals and sacrifices that were made as part of the Makahiki - in Sahlins' view, Cook was killed as a ritual murder to mark the end of Makahiki.

How did Cook probably die?

- Cook was probably killed during a melee in which a bunch of Hawaiians were also killed. - Before his death, Cook had attempted to take a Hawaiian King hostage in response to Hawaiians taking a bunch of stuff from Cook's boats. - This was common practice for Cook. He had done the same thing in Tahiti and other Polynesian Islands after Islanders had taken European goods. - right before Cook was killed there were rising tensions between the Hawaiians and the Europeans

More about Mana

- It's transferable - If I come in contact with an object with lots of mana, I will get some mana from that object and vice versa. - a power that is appropriated from the divine. - High ranking individuals who are said to be related to gods have a great deal of mana and so do their children. - When one ages, one takes on more mana so that when one dies, if he/she has led an exemplary life, he/she will be at the apex of their mana capacity.

Why does Gananath Obeyesekere oppose this theory?

- Obeyesekere argues that Cook himself would not easily be confused with Lono. If he were taken for a God, it would probably be Ku, the War God, what with all the cannons and muskets. Also, there's the fact that the name Cook sounds more like Ku - arguing that native Hawaiians would see a European and think him a God has all kinds of troubling implications. One of them being that native Hawaiians aren't terribly smart. When in fact we know that they are terribly smart. - Lono is associated with fertility and the Hawaiians would have associated the Europeans with the exact opposite of fertility because they introduced gonorrhea to Hawaii. - nothing in Hawaiian religion has any of their gods being ritually killed. Part of their mythology can be seen as sanctioning a ritual killing of the King, but not of a god and also it's a long way from ritual killing to actual killing!

Why were there tension between the Hawaiians and the Europeans?

- Probably because the Europeans dismantled a Hawaiian ritual space, some sources call it a temple, and used it for firewood - Cook attempted to pay for it, but his low-ball offer of two hatchets was refused!

How is tapa made?

- Strips of the inner bark are soaked for several days in the ocean to soften them and then women pound these pieces into long flat strips. - The strips are then glued together with a natural glue and painted.

Who makes it?

- This is a women's artform but in Samoa, where bark cloth is known as siapo, men assist too by carving pattern boards that women use as stencils. - Once they rub the pattern board design onto the siapo, they add additional free-hand decorations.

What do most accounts from the time portray?

- a chaotic scene in which Cook himself fired at least two shots, probably killing at least one Islander. - One thing that seem pretty clear, even as described by European chroniclers, is that Cook's death does not look premeditated and it sure doesn't look like a ritual.

What is Mana? What does it relate to?

- as supernatural power or a spiritual aura. - Terri Sowell defines it as generative potency since mana is an inherent power that comes from the ancestors. - an indwelling force, like electricity, that gives an object or a person potency. - It's impersonal - a force that all living substances and inanimate objects have. But some hold more or less than others. - relates to both objects and people.

Why did the ship go back? How was it different this time? What did it result in?

- because the ship had trouble and was forced to return to the bay for repairs. - During this second visit, he had difficulty with the Hawaiians, who'd previously had been pretty hospitable. - Captain Cook was killed by at least one Hawaiian.

Why do we know so much about Captain Cook?

- because we have tons of records about him, but they're almost all European records. - Even the Hawaiian records we have about Cook have been heavily influenced by later contact with Europeans.

What happened to a substantial number of the surviving Polynesian images?

- collected by the missionaries themselves and sent back to Europe or America as evidence of their spiritual achievements. - Others are acquired by explorers, colonists, and sailors and eventually make their way into Western museums and private collections.

In the bamboo map, What did the lines represent? What did the cowrie shells represent?

- currents - placeholders for islands.

What does Tapu mean?

- it designates something as sacred or having lots of mana. - It also means that there are rules, regulations, and restrictions surrounding those people and object with lots of mana. - Ex. If an ariki has a lot of mana and he takes off his feather cloak, that cloak is tapu. No commoner should touch it.

Why Did Cook's Ritual Death Myth Persist?

- it fits in with other stories of explorers. - Taínos thought Columbus was a god and that the Aztecs supposedly thought Cortés was a god. And this just makes Captain Cook one in a long line of Europeans who were thought to be gods by people who Europeans felt were savages. - making Cook a god also sets up a stark contrast between the enlightened West and primitive Polynesia, because Captain Cook often appears in history books as a model man of the Enlightenment.

- A warrior who was unconquerable on the battlefield had a great deal of mana and would ____________________________________ - An artist (artists were also considered priests) with lots of mana would __________________________

- require weapons with lots of mana. - make objects with lots of mana.

What did James Cook create? What did his creation do?

- the first paper maps of Polynesia - which allowed traders, explorers and missionaries to return to the islands on the waves of imperialism.

Individuals with a lot of mana such are rulers are required to what? such as what

- to make things happen with that mana such as: - to make sure that the taro gardens grow and that there is a good harvest, - to oversee that fish stocks are plenty, - to guard against natural disaster.

What is Tapa cloth? What is it made of?

- was the traditional clothing of all Polynesian islanders and the most important gift at ceremonial occasions. - the bark of the mulberry tree.

What other women art form still continue? What other men art form still continues?

- women's art forms: bark cloth and elaborately plaited mats - men's art forms: the carving of headrests, food pounders, and bowls.

What did the first half of the century also mark?

An increase in the intensity and extent of missionary activity across the region as the first missionaries arrive in New Zealand, Tonga, Hawai'i, Samoa, and Fiji.

What happens at the end of Makahiki?

At the end of the Makahiki period, Lono is ritually defeated and returned to his native Tahiti.

Why do art historians not have the same historical and archaeological depth when studying Polynesian art that they would in other regions.

Because the materials tended to readily disintegrate in a hot and humid climate.

What country did Cook map out? What did that do?

Cook explored and mapped out New Zealand. Again paving the way for colonization and paving the way for Crash Course World

In addition to the growing cultural changes brought about directly by European and American sailors, missionaries, and traders, many Polynesian peoples in the nineteenth century are devastated by epidemics of introduced ________________

Diseases

Besides huge territorial gains and increased wealth, what did the exploration of the Pacific contributed to?

Europe's romantic fascination with science.

During the 1870s and 1880s, the British annex ________ and the _________ ___________, while _______________ is formally ceded to France and __________ ______________to Chile.

Fiji, Cook Islands/ Tahiti/ Easter Island

What are four Polynesian cultures we are focusing on?

Hawaii, Samoa, Maori, Rapanui

It is roughly a 5,000 mile long triangle that extends from ___________ to ____________ _____________ to ___________ ________________.

Hawaii/ Easter Island/ New Zealand.

How and when did he die?

He was headed to California when he was killed in Hawaii in 1779.

Cook was the first to what?

He was the first European to describe Hawaii and also the first to keep his ships' crews free of scurvy!

How could someone lose their mana?

If he did not fight fairly on the battlefield, a warrior could lose mana. If a woman neglected her children, her mana would decrease.

Who was able to establish the Hawaiian monarchy by uniting the Hawaiian Islands under his rule? What aid did he have

Kamehameha (ca. 1758-1819) /with the aid of European weapons

In the Hawaiian religious system who rules for eight or nine months out of the year?

Ku, the God of War and Human Sacrifice,

What island groups is Oceania is comprised of?

Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia

What is the bark cloth is known in Samoa?

Siapo

Where does the word taboo comes from?

Tapu

What concept is embedded in works of art from the precontact period?

The concept of indirectness (kaona in Hawaii and heliaki in Tonga)

which semi-divine heroes are central to spiritual life in traditional Polynesia?

The pantheon of creator gods, the spirits of deified ancestors, and the adventures of legendary,

Where is where genealogy is located?

The spine - think of the notches on the spine as past generations

How many times did he come to this regions?

Three times

T/F A French ship might reach an island but finding it again was next to impossible so early voyages were 'hit and miss' for several decades.

True

T/F By 1900, Tonga remains the only substantial independent political entity in Polynesia.

True

T/F Despite the growing impact of their encounters with outsiders, Polynesian peoples in the first four decades of the nineteenth century remain politically independent.

True

T/F Elite lineages trace their ancestry to the gods.

True

T/F For Ku to return, the fesitval to end, and the normal political order to be restored, Lono had to be defeated and presumably killed! For Sahlins, Cook's death fits perfectly with the ritual structure of Hawaiian culture.

True

T/F It is said that the passing of an ariki's (royal) shadow over a commoner could lead to that commoner's death.

True

T/F Mana could also be lost and gained.

True

T/F On his first voyage, Cook's naturalist Joseph Banks, employed a young, Scottish botanical illustrator to accompany him.

True

T/F The claim that Cook was perceived as a Hawaiian god by the people has generally been debunked but this is still the popular narrative in many history books and travel brochures.

True

T/F meaning is indirect or hidden and it must be understood within its cultural context.

True

What is the big problem with this theory?

We don't have evidence that Hawaiians would have actually seen Cook that way

What distinct cultural characteristics do Polynesians share?

a common language, an emphasis on geneaology, and a highly developed aristocracy

Similarly the ______ and __________ of an object may be more significant to its power and potency than how it looks or who made it.

age, use

When Cook landed in Hawaii at Kealakekua Bay in early 1779 who was he greeted by

an important person, either a Chief or a God. And then he left

why did Polynesia have little contact with Europeans until very late?

because of their faulty navigation skills.

What did Polynesians use for navigations?

charting stars, birds, bird migration patterns, current cycles, weather, and utlizing bamboo maps. This made them excellent navigators.

Prior to the contact period, all islands recognized a social hierarchy comprised of what?

chiefs, nobles, priests, warriors, commoners, and slaves.

What does the artist, tuhunga (tofunga, kahuna), make?

clothing and weapons according to the level of the mana of the person who will own/use it.

In these highly stratified societies, where most titles are hereditary, genealogy is of paramount importance and objects passed down as heirlooms create what?

create connections between the living and the dead.

Why was A 100 foot long piece of tapa cloth was created?

created and held down by the tapa artists so their royal feet would never touch the ground.

European and American ______________ and _______________ influences continue to spread throughout the widely separated islands of Polynesia.

cultural/ political

Backed by U.S. Marines, a group of American businessmen depose the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893 and what did the United States and Germany do?

divide the islands of Samoa between them in 1899.

eyond his navigational skills, Cook also had a strong interest in _________________

documentation

Art objects in Polynesia are social agents of the __________, with the power to affect.

elite

What did the drawings of the Sidney Parkinson's depicte?

exotic plants wildlife and native cultures and crafts which survived as valuable scholarly records as well as beautiful ornamentation for cook's cartographic records

Equipped with newly acquired steel carving tools, What do many artists create?

exquisitely detailed works of immense artistic virtuosity and technical complexity: the intricately carved paddles of the Austral Islands, the lavishly adorned works of nineteenth-century Maori artists, and the striking ceremonial adzes of the Cook Islands.

In terms of artworks, What ephemeral materials were many of the objects made out of?

feathers, bark, and raffia

Although he died on board at age 26 from dysentery, What did Sydney Parkinson produce?

fine, accurate images of Polynesian art forms which help scholars understand a great deal about pre-contact material culture.

For example, fine mats woven by women are evaluated by what?

fineness, color, type of leaf, age, on what occasion they were used and by who owned them.

Those with lots of mana, then, were responsible for what?

for caring for those who had less, like the commoner class and slave class

What is the traditional view on why Cook was killed?

for some religious reason, although what isn't Interpretations of Captain Cook's Death: Makahiki always clear.

What did he do on his second voyage? (1772-1775)

he surveyed the Pacific from Alaska to the Antarctic discovering the New Hebrides and New Caledonia and finally disproved the existence of Terra Australis incognita

What was the original/first mission of his voyage? (1768-1771)

he was ordered to sail south from Tahiti in search of Terra Australis a vast southern continent theorized by some geographers and to explore the coast of New Zealand thought to be a part of that landmass

What are the most mana laden parts of the body?

head, backbone, and genitals.

What is One of the most universally recognized art forms throughout Polynesia?

is bark cloth, called tapa, kapa or siapo.

What was another nineteenth-century innovation among Polynesian artists?

is the development and elaboration of a wide variety of objects produced for sale to outsiders as curiosities.

In the 1840s, the British and Maori sign the Treaty of Waitangi, establishing British law in New Zealand, and what did France begin to do?

lay claim to Tahiti and other parts of present-day French Polynesia.

Polynesia makes up _______ ____________of the world's surface.

one fifth

What animal did Cook introduce? What did that do?

sheep which paved the way for Australia's huge wool industry.

It is believed that this system of mana led to what?

social stratification in society, keeping the classes separate

Artworks can embody what? What can it facilitate?

spiritual power (mana)/ the transfer of power from one generation to the next.

Who was the first European to fully chart this vast region?

the British explorer Captain James Cook

Who are the other months reserved for?

the Fertility God, Lono.

What happened with the islanders when Crook returned to the island?

the Islanders welcomed was combative and in an attempt to regain a ship's boat that had been stolen Cooke fired a shotgun he was stabbed to death in his body chopped to pieces by the natives

What are the new art forms that evolved combining Polynesian and Western materials and techniques?

the bold figurative painting tradition of the Maori or the sumptuously crafted rank insignia and luxury goods of the Hawaiian monarchy.

What does the conversion of Polynesian peoples to Christianity results in?

the destruction of much of Polynesia's rich sculptural heritage, which missionaries and recent converts condemn as "idols."

In Polynesia, Who are artworks made primarily for? Who are these people?

the hereditary rulers, called ari'i (ali'i, ariki) who are imbued with spiritual power derived from the ancestors.

The latter part of the nineteenth century is marked by what?

the increasing political control of the individual regions of Polynesia by European and American colonial powers.

What was his instructions on his third and final voyage? (1776-1780)

to make for California by way of Tahiti and to search for the elusive Northwest Passage

Tapu is a way to what?

to regulate mana and to protect people and objects, particularly these vulnerable parts of the body.

What did their expertise in canoe building also allowed them to do?

travel quickly and safely over long voyages