Chapter 8 The Principles of Design

How can you use a gradation to show motion?

A gradation or gradient also indicates movement. A gradation is any type of gradual visual change, which may also suggest motion. The steps of a sequential gradation are a primitive form of visual animation. Scale, shape, color, position, texture, value, and color can all be gradated, or changed by degrees. A gradation implies movement because it simulates time: before, during, and after—are all contained in one composition. Our eye follows a gradation to its logical ending, as it presents us with a coherent progression. A gradation also functions to lead the eye to a focal point.

What is asymmetrical balance?

Also known as informal balance, is the balance of elements that have unequal visual weight. Using asymmetrical balance (also known as asymmetry) sensitizes us to comparative visual weights. We must carefully consider positioning unequal elements in the picture plane. Asymmetrical visual compositions can be equalized by the thoughtful placement of visually heavy elements. In this manner, the visually "light" half of a composition can be weighted to compete with the "heavy" half of a composition. Awareness of the innate visual weight of design elements and types of contrast supports our mastery of compositional asymmetry. In this example, a large-scale simple element is balanced by a complex element. Here, a dark-value complex line element is balanced by a focal point established by direction and isolation. An element's visual weight is often dependent on its placement in the picture plane. Elements positioned closer to the bottom of a picture plane seem heavy. The saelements become lighter when placed nearer the top of the picture plane. This visual sensation is a direct result of our intuition about the gravity of objects.

What is alternating rhythm?

Alternating rhythm can be realized by alternating two or more different types of rhythmic structures to interact together in a composition. The alternating structures may be either interlocking parts of staccato and legato rhythms or layers of different types of rhythmic strategies.

How can you create balance in art?

Art elements or art concepts are not equal but have disparate visual weights. Complexity, texture, dark value, and large scale all have innate visual weight. Contrasts attract attention and have visual weight, like strong contrasts in value, scale, position, and/or depth. Art elements that contrast or in some way oppose their visual environments in some way, such as a textured element within a smooth area, a dark element in a light environment, and a modeled form in a flat space, all have visual weight. An axis can be placed in the center of the picture plane to divide the composition into two halves, to analyze the balance in a picture plane. A picture plane subdivided by an invisible axis vertically, horizontally, or diagonally helps us to gauge visual weight on both sides of the axis.

What is the design principal of balance?

Balance is the equal distribution of visual weight in a piece of art. The design principle of balance is a vital component of any work of art. To achieve balance in design, we are working with the concept of visual weight. Objects in 3D art have actual weight or suggested weight.

How can compositional elements be unified?

Compositional elements can be unified via two principal methods: thematic unity or visual unity.

How do you use continuity to create a visual unity?

Continuity or continuation is a visual pathway that connects a composition. This pathway can have an actual physical connection between parts or have an inferred relationship (like an implied line) between the elements of a composition. Continuity is especially successful in creating connectivity between the elements of a highly diverse or varied composition. A line of continuity provides a "roadmap" that also can direct the viewer through a composition. A continuity route can vary in character—smooth and flowing or jagged and circuitous. Whether employed in an obvious or subtle manner, continuation effectively unites the objects in a visual pathway

How can you create emphasis?

Contrast Isolation Direction

How can you use diagonals to show motion?

Diagonals suggest directional force in a composition, as they convey an innate sense of movement. Diagonals that radiate from a given point, for example, cause our eye to move both into and out from that center point. In contrast, compositions based on horizontals and verticals, like a grid, have a high degree of visual stability.

How can you use direction to create emphasis?

Direction is the manipulation of the directional forces of shape, line, position, or form to generate an area of emphasis. Direction, a concept directly related to continuity, exploits the visual force of implied lines to guide the eye to specific point(s) of compositional interest. Our eye can be directed to a point of emphasis in either an obvious or subtle fashion. Elements that are nearly touching in a design form visual tension, which can effectively direct attention toward a specific point of focus in a composition. A focal point may be located anywhere within a picture plane. However, it can be risky to position a point of emphasis directly on the edge of or close to a corner of the picture plane. Either of these placements may cause a balance problem or inadvertently lead the viewer's eye out of the picture plane. Conversely, a focal point need not be placed consistently in the center of the composition. The center of a picture plane is highly stable, but it also can be an overly predictable position for a focal point. Risk taking is integral to good design, so the locations of focal points should be flexible. Value can also be positioned in an arbitrary fashion for variety or balance, or to highlight an area of interest in a composition. Placing values arbitrarily will help us understand which values recede, advance, or draw our attention in a compositional context.

What is economy?

Economy is a design strategy that uses a minimal amount of visual information. Economy is related to the concept of minimalism, in which "less is more" visually applying the Gestalt concept of simplicity. Extreme economy of means or elements sets up a com- positional challenge for the artist. Economical compositions are often visually arresting and bold due to their extreme simplicity and clarity of thought. Economy is a valuable technique of paring down the design process to its barest elements.

What are the two major steps of the design process?

First, there is a selection process of the art elements to be used: line, shape, space, texture, value, and/or color. The second step in the design process is the placement/organization of the chosen design elements in a picture plane, three- dimensional space, or another type of visual structure. The design process consists of both selection and location of elements in a piece of art, guided by the compositional principles of design.

What is frozen motion?

Frozen motion is an expression of movement through a static image; for example, an animated object, such as a human body that is caught in motion, leads our mind's eye to fill in the "before" and "after" of the narrative. Motion can also be communicated by blurring, which suggests action or speed, as in a photograph of a moving object. Superimposed sequential views of an object moving through space also generate an illusion of movement.

How can you use isolation to create emphasis?

Isolation is produced by physically separating a specific area or object from the remainder of the composition, thus forming a point of emphasis. A compositional object may be isolated by a large area of negative space: set adrift, so to speak. In this type of isolation, negative space operates as a buffer, keeping the isolated element(s) from interacting with the remainder of the composition. A second method of isolation is to confine an object within a shape or particular area, referred to as enclosure, which is akin to circling or outlining the object. Isolation by manipulation of negative space or enclosure effectively produces a visual point of emphasis in a composition

What is legato rhythm?

Legato rhythm in music is a sustained or unbroken sound, smooth and connected. Visual legato rhythm is a smooth unbroken path through a composition.

Who founded the Gestalt theory in 1910?

Max Wertheimer Kurt Kofka Wolfgang Kohler

What is Crystallographic and Radial Balance?

Other forms of compositional balance include crystallographic balance, which is a pattern or subdivision of the picture plane, such as a grid, to achieve balance. Crystallographic refers to an interlocking crystal-like formation that integrates the positive with the negative spaces of the composition, often forming positive/negative ambiguity. Another simple form of balance is radial balance, which is characterized by radiating or emanating forms that originate from a specific point or area. The "vortex" of radial balance can be located virtually anywhere within the picture plane and still sustain compositional balance. Instinct plays an important part in all of art, particularly in the design principle of balance. We sometimes innately "feel" that objects are misplaced, too heavy, complex, dark, and so on. The guidelines outlined here are meant to supplement our visual instincts, not replace them.

How can you use contrast to create emphasis?

Our eye naturally focuses on whatever portion of a composition stands out visually as different, unexpected, or contrasting with the overall composition. For maximum effectiveness, a contrast should be in some type of visual opposition to its surrounding environment. Any art element may be deliberately contrasted with its surroundings—line, shape, color, form, texture, and so on. For example, a dark shape may contrast a light environment, a textured area can oppose an area of solid shapes, a three-dimensional form contrasts to an environment of flat shapes, or a flat shape contrasts a three-dimensional environment. Design strategies such as scale, position, and complexity can also be manipulated for contrast to indicate a focal point. For example, a light value form with complexity will contrast with a darker and simpler environment, a large simple form will stand out in an environment of complex textures, or a diagonal placement of a dark shape will stand out against an environment of light vertical lines. An area of visual contrast is also known as an anomaly, which is an unexpected departure from a dominant visual structure. An anomaly attracts attention because of its unforeseen nature in the overall strategy of a design

What is order and chaos in art?

Our human nature has a predilection for order, structure, and harmony, prompting us to seek order in the mass of visual information perceived by our eye and processed by our brain. If we cannot perceive a measure of visual organization, we may discern only chaos. In art and design, there is a fine balance between the order or chaos of visual information. Visual art engages the right side of our brain, which operates through intuition rather than logic. Because of the nature of our intuition, some design decisions are made simply because they "feel" right. Compositional order is visually stable, but an excess of order may create mundane, predictable design. In the design process, the emphasis may be placed on orderliness or toward chaos or may be balanced between the two approaches.

Why do we perceive elements in cohesive groups?

Our innate need for visual order causes us to perceive elements in cohesive groups.

What is progressive rhythm?

Progressive rhythm utilizes a radiating or gradating progression to express rhythm. Progressive rhythm correlates with radial balance, because forms emanate from one or more points. A visual analogy to progressive rhythm is a rock thrown into a pond, with ripples emanating in circles from the place where the rock splashes into the water. A gradation can also depict progressive rhythm because it describes a visual chain of events. A gradation sequence sets up a visual rhythm because gradual changes seem to encapsulate time.

How do you use proximity to create visual unity?

Proximity is a strategy for visually organizing elements by grouping them together. According to this Gestalt concept, even disparate objects can relate visually when they are grouped together. Proximity groups can be further defined by surrounding them with negative space. Our eye perceives proximity groupings as cohesive units because of the physical closeness of their positions. The guidelines for achieving unity can be used either singly or combined together to produce compositional harmony.

What are some ways to create visual unity?

Repetition Variety Similarity Continuity Proximity

What is the design principal of rhythm?

Rhythm is a concept directly corresponding to movement but has some distinct differences. Rhythm is a visual quality of movement, a pulsation in our eye's perception of a work of art. Visual rhythm describes the manner in which our eye moves through a composition. Rhythm is a term that describes the essential beat and time structure of music. When an artwork possesses visual rhythm, it has a visual beat or repeating element that generates movement. Repetition of a similar direction, such as a repeated group of diagonals, for example, will cause our eye to move systematically and kinetically through a composition.

What are the design principals of proportion and scale?

Scale is alternately referred to as either an art element or a design principle. Scale, also known as proportion, is the relative size of objects in an artwork. Scale variation can be used either to signify depth or serve to organize dissimilar objects. Objects with similar scale will appear to visually unify. Scale also indicates the size of our human body in relationship to objects around us everyday or the human scale in relationship to the size of a work of art. The concept of proportion and scale is also a way of structuring compositional space. Proportion of objects and space in design can have great impact on the visual weights and layout of a composition. Contrast of scale/proportional size can draw attention to key areas of a composition. The relative proportion or scale of spacing within a composition is also of critical importance. For instance, by manipulating the scale of negative space, we can create isolation in design. Alternately, if proportions of realistic objects seem to be out of scale with each other, this creates a feeling of disquiet in the viewer.

How do you use similarity to create a visual unity?

Similarity is a concept that directly corresponds to repetition. According to Gestalt theory, when we perceive similarity in a design, our eye picks up an arrangement or configuration of related elements.

What are the two types of rhythm?

Staccato Legato Alternating Progressive

What is the symmetry?

Symmetry is formal balance, or perfect balance, vertically, horizontally, or diagonally on either side of the central axis of a composition. In a symmetrical composition, elements on each side of the central axis are perfectly equal. When compositional elements are mirrored on either side of the axis, the axis is called the line of symmetry, which is the center of formal balance in either two-dimensional or three-dimensional design. We all have an inner sense of symmetry, as our bodies are essentially symmetrical in form, which makes symmetry feel "right" as perfect balance. However, symmetry can be static and predictable if habitually applied as a compositional structure; it is a stable visual structure that yields balance easily.

What is the Gestalt theory?

The analysis of how elements in a visual structure interact to produce a coherent whole is the heart of Gestalt theory. Gestalt theorists were interested in both how human beings visually perceive and how they mentally organize information. Gestalt theory has substantial applications to art and design because gestalt entails the study of human perception—the eye as a receptor working in conjunction with the brain. Perception of a visual configuration, pattern, or structure in our visual world is the core of Gestalt theory. Gestalt identifies the impulse that drives our inner search for visual structure and organization.

What is the design principal of unity?

The concept of unity defines the manner in which a composition holds together, the way that parts of a composition visually cohere. In a unified composition, the interaction of elements produces a configuration so interconnected that it bonds together visually. Unity is also referred to as visual harmony: compositional components must harmonize in order to integrate. Unity is regarded as an indispensable design principle because visual harmony is essential for a successful piece of art or design.

What is the design principal of emphasis?

The design principle of emphasis, also called focal point, pertains to forming a specific region of visual interest in a composition. Unlike unity, a focal point is not essential to effective design. However, an artist may choose to emphasize a specific portion of artwork to enhance a particular image or theme. To establish an area of emphasis/focal point, a composition must provide the viewer with visual clues to direct the eye to a particular area of focus. Numerous points of emphasis in a composition can all be of equal importance, or one point can be primary, one secondary, and so on, in a type of visual hierarchy.

What are the design principals of movement?

The design principles of movement and rhythm are distinct yet interconnected concepts. Movement refers to actual motion or the inference of motion in a work of art. There are forms of art that have actual movement, such as kinetic art and video. In installation art, for example, the viewer's actual movement through the art piece or interaction with it may be a factor in the impact of the piece. Artists also exploit various methods to depict motion in a static piece of art.

What is the definition of gestalt?

The perception of a configuration, pattern, structure, or wholeness.

What is thematic unity?

Thematic unity is utilization of a single coherent idea or theme in a piece of art. For instance, if the theme of an artwork is love of a pet dog, pictures of the dog could be collaged together, along with his leash, pictures of his favorite chew toys, pictures of his favorite people, and a label of his favorite dog food. Although this collage would have thematic unity because a single idea is operational throughout, it may or may not have visual unity.

What are design principals?

Theoretical concepts that guide the order of design elements within a two-dimensional or three-dimensional compositional space. Design principles are guidelines crucial to the selection, placement, scale, and positioning of visual elements.

How do you use repetition to create a visual unity?

To unify a composition, one or more art elements can be repeated—line, form, shape, value, color, or texture. For instance, a shape, such as a triangle, may be repeated to give automatic unity to a design. Design strategies, such as the same position, direction, or scale of an object, can also be repeated in a composition. For example, positioning objects in the same direction (such as vertically) will unify otherwise disparate elements in a design. Perfect repetition of art elements produces a configuration called a pattern, which repeats the same formation endlessly in any direction. A pattern has perfect unity but inspires limited interest compositionally due to its predictable nature.

How do you use variety to create a visual unity?

Too much repetition in a design can be visually dull and monotonous. Repetition can be made more visually exciting by pairing it with a design principle called variety. Variety is the variance or differentiation of an element in a repetitious visual structure. Compositionally, a single visual element such as line may be repeated, but some aspect of the element can be varied—such as diversifying the line width or line direction to trigger interest. Repetition and variety work together in the following examples: repetition of shapes and scale with variety of position, the repetition of position with variety of shape, or the repetition of shape with variety of value and scale. A highly repetitious composition increases order; a more diverse composition leans toward chaos. A high degree of variety is more challenging to unify but will appear to be more instinctive. Conversely, a high degree of repetition is easy to unify, but more difficult to make exciting.

What is staccato rhythm?

Visual staccato rhythm is a broken "on and off" configuration of disconnected repetitious parts, a visual beat.

What is visual unity?

Visual unity is contingent upon a visually articulate selection and placement of elements in a composition.

What is visual weight?

Visual weight is the relative visual importance of art elements and their characteristics in a composition.