Chapter 8A: South Asia

Emerging Markets and Fragmented Modernization

"India Shining"—rising economic growth rates: Due to globalization and modernization, Increasing integration into global economy. Poverty: Over half the population of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh live in poverty. Benefits of economic growth not evenly distributed.

The Specter of Terrorism

2008 terrorist attacks in Mumbai: Lashkar-e-Taiba—Pakistan-based organization with aims to return Kashmir to Islamic rule. Majority of India's Muslims are uninvolved in extremism. Pakistan's northwestern frontier is managed by the Taliban: Pressure by U.S. to confront the Taliban. Geopolitical chess game between India, Pakistan, and the United States.

Aryans and the Origins of Hinduism

Around 1500 BC northern India invaded by Aryans—peoples speaking Indo-European languages. Sanskrit—Language related to Old Persian. Vedism—religious belief system. Hinduism—emerged out of Vedism texts. Social stratification system: Solidified powerful position of Aryans, Organized villages into controlled networks, Small city-states emerged, Hierarchy of power—Brahmins (highest-order priests). Caste system—class-based system: Lowest castes determined by past lives, Appears to be eroding in cities due to globalization, economic growth, and urbanization. Indo-European languages—rooted in Sanskrit: Predominate in western and northern parts. Dravidian family—dominant in the South: Indigenous languages before arrival of Aryans. Telugu, Tamil, Kanarese (Kannada), Malayalam. Northern and northeastern areas: Sino-Tibetan languages. Eastern India and Bangladesh: Austro-Asiatic languages.

Buddhism and Other Indigenous Religions

Buddhism—around 500 BC: Arose in eastern Ganges Basin, Less than 1% of population in India, Important in Bhutan (state religion) and Sri Lanka (70% of population), Influence greater in Southeast Asia and East Asia. Jainism—developed alongside Hinduism: More purist, principled, and deeply spiritual form of Hinduism, Less than 1% of population. Sikhism—emerged around AD 1500: Blend of Islamic and Hindu beliefs, About 2% of population.

Indian Ocean Geopolitics

China needs access to markets and raw materials. Extending political and military power into the Indian Ocean and building bases in Pakistan. India has responded by building alliances in Southeast Asia. Terms of trade are to China's advantage because China runs a significant surplus: India supplies raw materials while China sells finished goods.

Major Geographic Qualities

Clearly defined physiographically—mountains, deserts, and Indian Ocean. Great rivers support huge population clusters. Birthplace of major religions. Foreign influences came through the Khyber Pass in the northwest. 3% of Earth's land area with 24% of world's population. Monsoon dominates life. Friction between India and both Pakistan and China. Predominantly rural, small villages, with some of the biggest cities in the world.

Indus Valley Civilization

Complex and technologically advanced. Emerged by about 2500 BC. Centered on Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Name of state—Sindhu. Influence extended eastward to Delhi. Did not last because of environmental change.

Chinese Border Claims

Jammu and Kashmir: Northeastern extensions are claimed by China, China gives strategic support to Pakistan. Arunachal Pradesh: China claims most of territory, Border agreement in 1914 between Tibet and India before Chinese control, 1962-fought a war over border, Issue remains unresolved today.

The European Intrusion

Mid-18th century—British had taken over trade of South Asia East India Company (EIC) Represented the British empire. British took advantage of weakened power of Mughals. "Indirect rule"—left local rulers (maharajas) to rule. 1857—"East India" became part of the British Colonial Empire.

The Monsoon

Monsoon-annual rains. Indispensable to subsistence and commercial agriculture. South Asian landmass heats up. Low pressure develops. Air flows from ocean to land. Condensation and precipitation occur. Wet monsoon brings rains for 60 days or more. Short dry season.

The Significant Agriculture

More than half the workforce employed in agriculture: Low productivity and only 20% contribution to overall economy. 70% of South Asia's population is rural. Dependence on a good harvest: Eastern India and Bangladesh—rice, Northwestern India and Pakistan—wheat.

Economic Liberalization

Neoliberalism—involves privatization of state-run companies, lowering of international trade tariffs, reduction of government subsidies, cutting of corporate taxes, and overall deregulation to spur business activity. Results of reforms noticeable in India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan: Economic growth rates have climbed to levels never seen before, Growth in manufacturing, services, finances, and information technology. Yet 1 billion South Asians have not attained middle-class status.

Physiographic Regions

Northern Mountains: Hindu Kush, Karakoram, Himalayas. River Lowlands: Indus Valley, Gangetic Plain. Double delta—Ganges and Brahmaputra in Bangladesh. North Indian Plain: Punjab. Plateaus: Deccan—tableland, Central Indian Plateau. Eastern and Western Ghats.

Population Density and the Question of Overpopulation

Population density measures the number of people per unit area: Arithmetic density is the number of people per area, Physiological density is the number of people per unit of arable (used for food production) land. Overpopulation and "carrying capacity": High population growth and densities unsupportable, Not all high-density countries are struggling. Human resources—population of a country: Countries with high education levels, institutional efficiency, and technological know-how are able to use natural resources more efficiently, South Asia's large population is illiterate, undereducated.

Population Geography

Population geography focuses on the characteristics, distribution, growth, and other aspects of spatial demography. Four demographic dimensions in South Asia: The role of density, The demographic transition, Age distributions and economics, The gender bias in birth rates.

Demographic Burdens

Proportion of population that is either too old or too young to be productive and that must be cared for by productive population. Low death rates and high birth rates will have large share of young and old resulting in a high demographic burden. Population Pyramid—diagrams showing age-sex structure.

Future Prospects

Realm in transition. Politically: India-Pakistan relations. Economically: India's rise in global economy, Growing middle class, IT is a leading economic sector, giving it advantage for the future. Demographically: Pass through demographic transition.

The Missing Girls

Sex ratio: Among young children males outnumber females. Gender bias: Higher value on boys, Thought to be more productive income-earners, Entitled to land and inheritance, Do not require a dowry. Female infanticide: Ultrasound scanning and rising incomes have resulted in abortion of females. "Bachelor angst"—difficulty in finding brides, Has resulted in changing attitudes.

Colonial Transformation

South Asia became a supplier of raw materials and cotton for the industries of Britain. Importation of European manufactured goods resulted in decline of local industries and loss of markets. Extensive transport network—railroad system. Development of coastal cities and ports. A new elite among South Asian natives emerged.

A Tectonic Encounter

Spectacular relief in the north. Collision of Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate: Accordion-like collision created Himalaya Mountains, One of the most earthquake-prone areas in the world. Permanent snow and ice provide melt water to sustain rivers. Headwaters of great rivers: Ganges River, Indus River, Brahmaputra River.

The Demographic Transition

Structural change in birth and death rates: Rapid population increase, Decline in growth rates, Stable population. Most South Asian countries are in the third stage—rates stabilize, deaths decline due to medical advances. Fertility rates—the number of births per woman. Fertility rates have dropped across the realm.

The Geographic Panorama

Subcontinent. Divides Indian Ocean between Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Demarcated by mountains and deserts. British Empire—unifying force. Partitions in 1947 based on religion—Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist. Disputed territory—Kashmir. English—Lingua franca.

Partition and Independence

Tensions between Hindu and Muslim interests developed. Partition—separation of India and Pakistan. New boundaries drawn through areas where both sides coexisted. Millions displaced. Refugee migrations. Created a new cultural and geopolitical landscape in South Asia.

India-Pakistan

Tenuous relationship. Pakistan and Bangladesh were united as West Pakistan and East Pakistan: India lay between, 1971 East Pakistan gained independence from West Pakistan and took the name Bangladesh, India supported East Pakistan's secession. Cold War: India tilted toward Moscow, Pakistan found favor in Washington. Arms race led to both becoming nuclear powers. Muslims in India are the largest cultural minority in the world.

Contested Kashmir

Territory of high mountains surrounded by Pakistan, India, and China. Forward capital—Islamabad: Pakistan moved the capital into the embattled interior to stake a claim to northern frontiers. Kashmir and the Partition: Maharaja was Hindu: Population Muslim, Maharajah decided not to join Pakistan and to retain autonomous status, Resulted in a Muslim uprising supported by Pakistan that led to Indian intervention. Tensions remain.

Foreign Invaders

The Reach of Islam. Late 10th century arrived in South Asia. Spread into the Indus Valley and eastward. Delhi Sultanate—13th century: Expanded across the northern tier. Mughal (Mogul) Empire—Islamicized Mongols: Pushed from Afghanistan into the Punjab, Ousted the Delhi Sultanate, Expanded Islam with tolerant policies toward Hindus, Built Taj Mahal. Today Islam is dominant in Pakistan and Bangladesh.