Chapter 9
Prenatal Development
"Before Birth". Begins with contraception. Development from zygote to fetus.
schema
A cognitive structure that organizes information and provides a structure for interpreting it.
fetal alcohol syndrome
A disorder, marked by physical defects and mental retardation, that can afflict the offspring of women who drink alcohol during pregnancy.
Synapse
A gap between neurons that is bridged by chemical neurotransmitters.
cohort
A group of people of the same age group.
teratogen
A noxious substance, such as a virus or drug, that can cause prenatal defects.
Neglectful Parenting
A parenting style characterized by a lack of parental involvement in the child's life.
Permissive Parenting
A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior.
Authoritative Parenting
A parenting style that encourages the child to be independent but that still places limits and controls on behavior.
Puberty
A period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation that occurs mainly in early adolescence.
Resilience
A person's ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times.
Identity Status
A person's position in the development of an identity.
cross-sectional research
A research design in which groups of participants of different ages are compared at the same point in time.
Preferential Looking
A research technique that involves giving an infant a choice of what object to look at.
Authoritarian Parenting
A restrictive, punitive style in which the parent exhorts the child to follow the parent's directions and to value hard work and effort.
social attachment
A strong emotional relationship between an infant and a caregiver.
gender schema theory
A theory of gender-role development that combines aspects of social learning theory and the cognitive perspective.
social learning theory
A theory of learning that assumes that people learn behaviors mainly through observation and mental processing of information.
Accommodation
An individual's adjustment of his or her schemas to new information.
Temperament
An individual's behavioral style and characteristic way of responding.
Nature
An individual's biological inheritance, especially his or her genes.
Nurture
An individual's environmental and social experiences.
Assimilation
An individual's incorporation of new information into existing knowledge.
Genotype
An individuals genetic heritage.
Gilligan
Argues that Kohlberg's approach does not give adequate attention to relationships.
Longitudinal Study
Assesses the same participants multiple times over a lengthy period.
Pre-conventional Level
Based Primarily on punishments and rewards from the external world. Stage 1- Heteronomous Morality Stage 2- Individualism, Purpose, and Exchange
Kohlberg's Theory
Based on story of stealing. Answers were based on moral responses.
Germinal Period
Begins with conception. 1-2 weeks.
Prosocial Behavior
Behavior that is intended to benefit other people.
Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning
Denotes adolescents' ability to develop hypotheses about ways to solve a problem such as an algebraic equation.
generativity versus stagnation
Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by becoming less self-absorbed and more concerned with the well-being of others. (Middle adulthood; 40s and 50s)
initiative versus guilt
Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by behaving in a spontaneous but socially appropriate way. (early childhood; 3-5 years)
industry versus inferiority
Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by developing a sense of competency. (Middle and Late Childhood)
intimacy versus isolation
Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by establishing a relationship with a strong sense of emotional attachment and personal commitment. (Early adulthood; 20s 30s)
identity versus identity confusion
Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by establishing a sense of personal identity. (Adolescence; 10-20 years)
autonomy versus shame and doubt
Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by gaining a degree of independence from one's parents. (Toddler 1.5-3 years)
trust versus mistrust
Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by having a secure social attachment with a caregiver. (infancy; birth-1.5 years)
integrity versus despair
Erikson's developmental stage in which success is achieved by reflecting back on one's life and finding that it has been meaningful. (Late Adulthood; 60s)
Identity vs. Identity Confusion
Erikson's fifth psychological stage, in which adolescents face the challenge of finding out who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life.
Wisdom
Expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life.
Justice Perspective
Focuses on the rights of the individual as the key to sound moral reasoning.
The Easy Child
Generally is in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routine in infancy, and easily adapts to new experiences.
The Slow to Warm Up Child
Has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, is inflexible, and displays a low intensity of mood.
Cognitive Development
How thought, intelligence, and language processes change as people mature.
Biculturalism
Identifing in some ways with their ethnic minority group and in other ways with the majority culture.
postconventional level
In Kohlberg's theory, the level of moral reasoning characterized by concern with obeying mutually agreed upon laws and by the need to uphold human dignity.
preconventional level
In Kohlberg's theory, the level of moral reasoning characterized by concern with the consequences that behavior has for ones self
conventional level
In Kohlberg's theory, the level of moral reasoning characterized by concern with upholding laws and conventional values and by favoring obedience to authority.
Life Themes
In our efforts to experience our lives in optimal ways, we develop life themes that involve activities, social relationships, and life goals.
Strange Situation
In this procedure, caregivers leave infants alone with a stranger and then return. Children's responses to this situation are used to classify their attachment style
Scaffolding
Interactions that allows the child's cognitive ability to be built higher and higher.
Physical Processes
Involve changes in an individual's biological nature.
Socioemotional Processes
Involve changes in an individual's relationships with other people, in emotions, and in personality.
cognitive processes
Involve changes in an individual's thought, intelligence, and language.
Commitment
Involves making a decision about which identity path to follow and making a personal investment in attaining that identity.
Operations
Mental representations that are reversible
Fetal Period
Months 2-9. The last 3 months of pregnancy are the time when organ functioning increases and the fetus puts on considerable weight and size, adding baby fat.
preterm infant
One who is born prior to 37 weeks after conception.
Actively Construct
Piaget believed that children actively construct their cognitive world as they go through a series of stages.
Sensorimotor Stage
Piaget's first stage of cognitive development, lasting from birth to about 2 years of age, during which infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor (physical) actions.
Formal Operational Stage
Piaget's fourth stage of cognitive development, which begins at age 11 to 15 and continues through the adulthood; it features thinking about things that are not concrete, making predictions, and using logic to come up with hypotheses about the future.
Preoperational Stage
Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, lasting from about 2 to 7 years of age, during which thought is more symbolic than sensorimotor thought.
Concrete Operational Stage
Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, lasting from about 7 to 11 years of age, during which the individual uses operations and replaces intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning in concrete situations.
Cognition
Refers to the way individuals think and also to their cognitive skills and abilities.
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Results in an inability to metabolize phenylalanine. Demonstrated that a person's observable and measurable characteristics(phenotype) might not reflect his or her genetic heritage(genotype) very precisely because of the particular experiences the person has had.
The Difficult Child
Tends to react negatively and to cry frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept new experiences.
formal operational stage
The Piagetian stage, beginning at about age 11, marked by the ability to use abstract reasoning and to solve problems by testing hypotheses.
preoperational stage
The Piagetian stage, extending from 2 to 7 years of age, during which the child's use of language becomes more sophisticated but the child has difficulty with the logical mental manipulation of information.
sensorimotor stage
The Piagetian stage, from birth through the second year, during which the infant learns to coordinate sensory experiences and motor behaviors.
transitive inference
The application of previously learned relationships to infer new relationships.
menarche
The beginning of menstruation, usually occurring between the ages of 11 and 13.
gender roles
The behaviors that are considered appropriate for females or males in a given culture.
Infant Attachment
The close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver.
developmental psychology
The field that studies physical, perceptual, cognitive, and psychosocial changes across the life span.
spermarche
The first ejaculation, usually occurring between the ages of 13 and 15.
crystallized intelligence
The form of intelligence that reflects knowledge acquired through schooling and in everyday life.
fluid intelligence
The form of intelligence that reflects reasoning ability, memory capacity, and speed of information processing.
egocentrism
The inability to perceive reality from the perspective of another person.
Conventional Level
The individual abides by standards such as those learned from parents or society's laws. Stage 3- Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, and Interpersonal Conformity Stage 4- Social System Morality
Post Conventional Level
The individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then develops an increasingly moral code. Stage 5-Social Contract or Utility and Individual Rights Stage 6- Universal Ethical Principles
Estrogens
The main class of female sex hormones.
Androgens
The main class of male sex hormones.
Development
The pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life, involving both growth and decline.
adulthood
The period beginning when the individual assumes responsibility for her or his own life.
puberty
The period of rapid physical change that occurs during adolescence, including the development of the ability to reproduce sexually.
infancy
The period that extends from birth through 2 years of age.
childhood
The period that extends from birth until the onset of puberty.
Phenotype
The person's observable characteristics.
conservation
The realization that changing the form of a substance does not change its amount.
object permanence
The realization that objects exist even when they are no longer visible.
maturation
The sequential unfolding of inherited predispositions in physical and motor development.
adolescence
The transition period lasting from the onset of puberty to the beginning of adulthood.
Emerging Adulthood
The transitional period from adolescence to adulthood, spanning approximately 18 to 25 years of age.
social clock
The typical or expected timing of major life events in a given culture.
Secure Attachment
The ways that infants use their caregiver, usually their mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment.
Care Perspective
Views people in terms of their connectedness with others and emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships, and concern for others.
Embryonic Period
Weeks 3-8. The rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for the cells develop, and the beginnings of organs appear.
Adolescent Egocentrism
involves the individual's belief that others are as preoccupied with him or her as the adolescent himself or herself is and that the individual is both unique and invincible.
