Chapter 9: Developmental Psych

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Adolescents are capable of intense learning of new ideas and of questioning traditional beliefs.

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African Americans reach puberty about seven months earlier than European or Hispanic Americans, whereas Chinese Americans average several months later (

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At every age, the best thinking may be "fast and frugal"

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Education is compulsory until at least age 12 almost everywhere

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From a developmental perspective, the fact that high schools emphasize

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In 2011, only 15 percent of U.S. twelfth graders drank even three glasses of milk daily

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In 2011, only 15 percent of high school seniors ate the recommended three or more servings of vegetables a day

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In many nations, the ideal body type is tall and thin,And the ideal facial appearance is Anglo-Saxon.

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Not only does insufficient sleep decrease learning and well-being, but so does an uneven sleep schedule (more sleep on weekends, erratic bedtimes)

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PIAGET'S EXPERIMENTS

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U.S. boys who are heavy in childhood reach puberty later, not earlier, than others

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Worldwide, urban children are more often overfed and underexercised than rural children

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adolescents are particularly likely to use intuition, not analysis

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during adolescence, cognitive development facilitates the understanding that discrimination exists at the social-systemic level

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peak fertility occurs four to six years later.

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According to DSM-IV,

1 to 3 percent of female teenagers and young adults in the United States are clinically bulimic.

daily recommended intake of calcium for teenagers is

1,300 milligrams, the average North American teen consumes fewer than 500 milligrams a day.

Most girls must weigh at least ______(45 kilograms) before they experience their first period

100 pounds

Boys want to look taller and stronger, a concern that increases from ages

12 to 17

At which of the following ages would you expect acute self-consciousness to be at its highest?

12 years

southern European girls do so at

12 years, 5 months

The average age of menarche among normal-weight girls is

12 years, 8 months

northern European girls reach menarche at

13 years, 4 months,

When compared with 18- to 23-year-olds,

14- to 15-year-olds show heightened arousal in the brain's reward centers, making them seek excitement and pleasure

The PISA is taken by

15-year-olds

Many experts think that eating disorders are much more widespread than DSM statistics portray

17 percent of the girls had eaten nothing for at least one 24-hour period in the past month, as had 7 percent of the boys

If someone's body mass index (BMI) is

18 or lower, or if she (or, less often, he) loses more than 10 percent of body weight within a month or two, anorexia is suspected.

In a survey

64 percent of U.S. 16- to 17-year-olds said they had been in a car when the driver was texting

spermarche

A boy's first ejaculation of sperm. Erections can occur as early as infancy, but ejaculation signals sperm production. Spermarche may occur during sleep (in a "wet dream") or via direct stimulation.

adolescent egocentrism

A characteristic of adolescent thinking that leads young people (ages 10 to 13) to focus on themselves to the exclusion of others.

middle school students,

A cognitive perspective on development highlights the academic disengagement typical of

circadian rhythm

A day-night cycle of biological activity that occurs approximately every 24 hours (circadian means "about a day").

menarche

A girl's first menstrual period, signaling that she has begun ovulation. Pregnancy is biologically possible, but ovulation and menstruation are often irregular for years after menarche.

pituitary:

A gland in the brain that responds to a signal from the hypothalamus by producing many hormones, including those that regulate growth and that control other glands, among them the adrenal and sex glands

leptin

A hormone that affects appetite and is believed to affect the onset of puberty. Leptin levels increase during childhood and peak at around age 12

HPG (hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad) axis:

A sequence of hormone production that originates in the hypothalamus, moves to the pituitary, and then to the gonads.

ere we describe two other eating disorders that are common in adolescence and early adulthood.

ANOREXIA BULIMIA

invincibility fable:

An adolescent's egocentric conviction that he or she cannot be overcome or even harmed by anything that might defeat a normal mortal, such as unprotected sex, drug abuse, or high-speed driving.

incremental approach to intelligence:

An approach to understanding intelligence that holds that intelligence can be directly increased by effort; those who subscribe to this view believe they can master whatever they seek to learn if they pay attention, participate in class, study, complete their homework, and so on.

entity approach to intelligence

An approach to understanding intelligence that sees ability as innate, a fixed quantity present at birth; those who hold this view do not believe that effort enhances achievement.

personal fable:

An aspect of adolescent egocentrism characterized by an adolescent's belief that his or her thoughts, feelings, and experiences are unique, more wonderful or awful than anyone else's.

anorexia nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by self-starvation. Affected individuals voluntarily undereat and often overexercise, depriving their vital organs of nutrition. Anorexia can be fatal.

high-stakes test:

An evaluation that is critical in determining success or failure. If a single test determines whether a student will graduate or be promoted, it is a high-stakes test.

PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment):

An international test taken by 15-year-olds in 50 nations that is designed to measure problem solving and cognition in daily life.

n adolescence, gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is released by the hypothalamus, causing the pituitary to release gonadotropins (LH & FSH), which in turn activate the gonads.

As a result, the gonads enlarge and increase their production of sex hormones, chiefly estradiol in girls and testosterone in boys.

symptoms:BULIMIA

Binging and purging at least once a week for three months Uncontrollable urges to overeat A distorted perception of body size

Adolescents are also capable of logical, hypothetical thought, what Piaget described as formal operational thinking.

Both emotional intuition and logical analysis are stronger in adolescence than earlier in life. Adolescents usually prefer the former because it's faster and easier.

many middle school students seek acceptance from their peers.

Bullying increases, appearance becomes important, status symbols are displayed (from gang colors to expensive shoes), and sexual conquests are flaunted, with boys bragging and girls gaining status if they have older boyfriends.

cyberbullying

Bullying that occurs when one person spreads insults or rumors about another by means of technology (e.g., e-mails, text messages, or cell phone videos).

Nutrition

Cohort and age are crucial factors

Using _____ thinking, a person might think, "If it barks like a dog and wags its tail like a dog, it must be a dog."

D. inductive

especially common after puberty.

Deficiencies of iron, calcium, zinc, and other minerals

adrenal glands produce both hormones in both sexes.

Estrogens (including estradiol) are female hormones and androgens (including testosterone) are male hormones,

serious hearing loss in late adulthood is twice as common among those who never graduated from high school as it is among high school graduates

Global economic growth depends on highly educated workers. Partly because political leaders recognize that educated adults advance national wealth and health, every nation is increasing the number of students in secondary schools.

Transitions to new schools are always challenging, as illustrated by the increase in bullying, especially cyberbullying, as middle school begins.

High-stakes national tests required for high school graduation, and international tests such as the PISA, raise questions about the quality of secondary education in the United States.

BULIMIA: Most are close to normal in weight and therefore unlikely to starve.

However, they risk serious health problems, including damage to their gastrointestinal systems and cardiac arrest from electrolyte imbalance (Shannon, 2007). They also risk compulsive disorders and depression, including thoughts of suicide

formal operational thought

In Piaget's theory, the fourth and final stage of cognitive development, characterized by more systematic logical thinking and by the ability to understand and systematically manipulate abstract concepts.

However, many experts do not believe the biological or psychological stresses of puberty are the main reasons learning suffers in early adolescence

Instead, they blame the organizational structure of many middle schools

What function does the prefrontal cortex serve?

It is responsible for planning ahead and emotional regulation.

Analysis of nations and scores on the PISA finds four factors that correlate with high achievement (OECD, 2010, p. 6)

Leaders, parents, and citizens overall value education, with individualized approaches to learning so that all students learn what they need. Standards are high and clear, so every student knows what he or she must do, with a "focus on the acquisition of complex, higher-order thinking skills." Teachers and administrators are valued, given "considerable discretion...in determining content" and sufficient salary as well as time for collaboration. Learning is prioritized "across the entire system," with high-quality teachers working in the most challenging environments.

Secondary education is crucial for personal health and for national economic development.

Many students become alienated from learning during middle school; middle schools are not usually organized to encourage relationships between teachers and students.

Experiences and role models influence the choice.

Of whether to use analytic thought or intuitive thought

Overall, the U.S. students did worse on the PISA than on the

PIRLS or TIMSS.

students who are capable of passing their classes drop out almost as often as those who are less capable, at least as measured on IQ tests.

Persistence, engagement, and motivation seem more crucial than intellectual ability

secondary sex characteristics

Physical traits that are not directly involved in reproduction but that indicate sexual maturity, such as a man's beard and a woman's breasts.

deductive reasoning: top-down reasoning.

Reasoning from a general statement, premise, or principle, through logical steps, to figure out (deduce) specifics. (Also called top-down reasoning.)

inductive reasoning:during the primary school years

Reasoning from one or more specific experiences or facts to reach (induce) a general conclusion. (Also called bottom-up reasoning.)

hypothetical thought:

Reasoning that includes propositions and possibilities that may not reflect reality.

Anorexia is officially diagnosed when four symptoms are evident:

Refusal to maintain a weight that is at least 85 percent of normal BMI Intense fear of weight gain Disturbed body perception and denial of the problem Absence of menstruation (in adolescent and adult females)

Endurance improves:

Some teenagers can run for miles or dance for hours.

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The fact that the prefrontal cortex is the last to mature may explain something that has long bewildered adults: Many adolescents are driven by the excitement of new experiences and sensations—forgetting the caution that their parents have tried to instill (Steinberg, 2008).

Thus, as the hormones of puberty awaken sexual interest, both sexes become less happy with their own bodies and more superficial in what they admire in the other sex.

This is true worldwide.

when does puberty Start?

This process normally starts between ages 8 and 14

analytic thought

Thought that results from analysis, such as a systematic ranking of pros and cons, risks and consequences, possibilities and facts. Analytic thought depends on logic and rationality.

Uneven brain development characterizes adolescence, with the limbic system developing faster than the prefrontal cortex.

Young adolescents are often egocentric, thinking of themselves as invincible, and performing for an imaginary audience.

puberty arrives earlier if

a child's parents are sick, addicted, or divorced, or if the neighborhood is violent and impoverished.

ANOREXIA

about 1 percent of all women in late adolescence suffer from anorexia it leads to death by organ failure or suicide for between 5 and 20 percent of sufferers. nervosa,

Deductive reasoning begins with an

abstract idea or premise and then uses logic to draw specific conclusions

Psychological disorders in both sexes increase at

adolescence, but males are twice as likely as females to become schizophrenic, whereas females are twice as likely to become depressed.

In developing the capacity to think hypothetically

adolescents gradually become capable of deductive reasoning,

formal operational

adolescents imagine all possible determinants...[and] systematically vary the factors one by one, observe the results correctly, keep track of the results, and draw the appropriate conclusions

Emotional control is not fully developed until

adulthood

early-maturing boys have been more

aggressive, law-breaking, and alcohol-abusing than later-maturing boys

Students were most motivated and engaged in primary school, somewhat engaged in college, but least engaged in secondary school (Martin, 2009).

alues embraced during adolescence are more likely to endure than those acquired later, after brain connections are firmly established

Which matures first?

amygdala matures before the prefrontal cortex: the instinctual and emotional areas of the adolescent brain develop ahead of the reflective

when the school climate is negative, those with high self-esteem are often bullies

analytic, deductive thinking makes sense since many 15- to 18-year-olds are capable of abstract logi

leptin affects appetite in females more than it does in males

and body fat is more closely connected to the onset of puberty in girls than in boys.

Jean Piaget: Adolescents move past concrete operational thinking

and consider abstractions

Essentially, analytic thought is more difficult than intuition,

and it requires examination of comforting, familiar prejudices.

menstruation depletes iron

anemia is more likely among adolescent girls than among people of any other age or gender

One reason for poor nutrition among teenagers is

anxiety about body image

According to international comparisons, educational systems that track students into higher or lower classes, that expel students who are not learning, and that allow competition between schools for the brightest students

are also school systems with lower average achievement and a larger gap between student scores at the highest and lowest quartiles

Adolescents believe that others:

are as egocentric as they are

Neurological research finds that the reward parts of adolescents' brains

are far stronger than the inhibition parts

he cutoff for anemia is higher for boys than for girls

because males require more iron to be healthy

teenage brains have underdeveloped "response inhibition, emotional regulation, and organization

because their prefrontal cortexes are immature.

Boys who reach puberty late also have problems

becoming more anxious, depressed, and afraid of sex than are other boys

Both weight and height increase

before muscles and internal organs

The hypothalamus and the pituitary regulate the hormones that affect the

biorhythms of stress, appetite, sleep, and so on

If puberty is both early and quick,

boys are especially likely to become depressed; in adolescence, male depression may appear as anger:

Certain alleles increase the risk of anorexia

but context is crucial. The disorder seems related to cultural pressure to be thin.

Red blood cells increase in both sexes

but dramatically more so in boys, which aids oxygen transport during intense exercise

In fourth grade, the "coolest" peers are good students;

by eighth grade, cool peers are not involved in school but likely to be antisocial

If a school is structured so that children individually compete with each another rather than work in cooperative groups, then individuals who score low are likely to cope

by endorsing the entity theory

One hallmark of formal operational thought is the

capacity to think of possibility, not just reality.

after eighth grade,

children seem to learn more

By age 10,

children thought about location, but used trial and error, not logic.

Lungs triple in weight

consequently, adolescents breathe more deeply and slowly.

Only one organ system, the lymphoid system

decreases in size;

The heart doubles in size and the heartbeat slows

decreasing the pulse rate while increasing blood pressure

In both sexes and in adolescents of all ethnicities,

dissatisfaction with body image correlates strongly with low self-esteem

In other words, being smarter as measured by an intelligence test did not advance logic as much as did having more

experience

any adolescents of both sexes in every nation spurn iron-rich foods in favor

f iron-poor chips, sweets, and fries. Coffee, tea, and soda reduce iron absorption

research in Saudi Arabia involving 18- to 23-year-old college women

found that, despite these advantages, half had insufficient iron, and many of them were clinically anemic

Quite normal are increased hormones any time from ages 8 to 14, with the precise age affected by

genes, gender, body fat, and stress.

About two-thirds of the variation in age of puberty is

genetic,

when it comes to hormonal and sexual changes

girls are only a few months ahead of boys.

growth spurt

growth of the limbs precedes growth of the torso.

dual-process model:

he notion that two networks exist within the human brain, one for emotional and one for analytical processing of stimuli.

imaginary audience

he other people who, in an adolescent's egocentric belief, are watching and taking note of his or her appearance, ideas, and behavior. This belief makes many teenagers very self-conscious

primary sex characteristics:

he parts of the body that are directly involved in reproduction, including the vagina, uterus, ovaries, testicles, and penis.

A height spurt follows the weight spurt.

hen, a year or two later, a muscle spurt occurs.

Sleepy teenagers are more likely to have many problems

hey doze in school (see Figure 9.2), fall asleep while driving, develop eating and mood disorders (depression, conduct disorder, anxiety), have poor relationships with their parents, and abuse substances (partly to wake up or to sleep), thereby jeopardizing their health

About half of adult bone mass is acquired from ages 10 to 20,

hich means many contemporary teenagers will develop osteoporosis (fragile bones) because of too little calcium and too much soda, day in and day out

he sixth-grade boy with sexual fantasies about the taller girls in his class is neither perverted nor precocious;

his hormones are simply ahead of his visible growth.

Puberty has occurred at younger ages every century since then

his is one result of the secular trend: More food has allowed biological advances.

many studies find that bullying increases in the first year of middle school and again in the first year of high school

his occurs between the sexes as well as within them, with girls likely to bully other girls they perceive as sexual rivals, and boys likely to bully other boys they perceive as gay.

intuitive thought called a heuristic

hought that arises from an emotion or a hunch, beyond rational explanation, and is influenced by past experiences and cultural assumptions.

The process begins deep within the brain when biochemical signals from the

hypothalamus

he disparity in teacher quality between wealthy and impoverished schools is much greater in the United States than

in nations that score high on the PISA

These two processes have been called:

intuitive/analytic, implicit/explicit, creative/factual, contextualized/decontextualized, unconscious/conscious, hot/cold, gist/quantitative, emotional/intellectual, experiential/rational, or system 1/system 2.

Since adolescents regard themselves as uniquely special:

it is difficult for them to envision another person's perspective.

One hormone causes increased body fat and then triggers puberty

leptin

Stress affects the sexual-reproductive system

making reproduction more difficult in adulthood and by hastening (not delaying) the hormonal onset of puberty

Heavy girls reach menarche years earlier than

malnourished ones do.

The female height spurt occurs before

menarche,

Paul Klaczynski has conducted dozens of studies comparing the thinking of children, young adolescents, and older adolescents

most adolescents (73 percent) made at least one analytic errorKlaczynski found that almost all adolescents were analytical and logical on some of the 19 problems but not on others. Logical thinking improved with age and education, although not with IQ.

bulimia nervosa:(binge-purge syndrome) about three times as common as anorexia

n eating disorder characterized by binge eating and subsequent purging, usually by induced vomiting and/or use of laxatives.

Then students consider their school a good place to be—with supportive teachers, friendly students, opportunities for growth-those with high self-esteem are

not only less likely to engage in cyberbullying, but they also disapprove of it

Egocentrism leads adolescents

nterpret everyone else's behavior as if it were a judgment on them

guidance counselors in the United States have an average caseload

of 270 students

Injuries increase at puberty

partly because the height spurt precedes increases in bone mass, making young adolescents particularly vulnerable to fracture

eptin levels in the blood show a natural increase over childhood,

peaking at puberty

Bullying decreases each year of elementary school,

perhaps because students learn from classmates and teachers that there are better ways to interact with other children.

Elkind named several aspects of adolescent egocentrism

personal fable and the invincibility fable

Hormones of the HPA axis at puberty cause a

phase delay in sleep-wake cycles, making many teens wide awake and hungry at midnight but half asleep with little appetite or energy all morning

limbic system at puberty

prefrontal cortex by the early 20s

Career Academies

prepare students for specific jobs

Hormonal increases affect

psychopathology in sex-specific ways

whereas the cortex responds more to age and experience than to hormones.

pubertal hormones target the amygdala directly

Although everyone's hair changes texture at

puberty

mild asthma often disappears at

puberty

Eating disorders are rare in childhood but increase dramatically at

puberty,accompanied by distorted body image, food obsession, and depression

Adolescents are primed to engage in hypothetical thought

reasoning about if-then propositions that do not reflect reality. For example, consider this question

Puberty

refers to the years of rapid physical growth and sexual maturation that end childhood, producing a person of adult size, shape, and sexuality.

HPA (hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal) axis:

sequence of hormone production that originates in the hypothalamus, moves to the pituitary, and then to the adrenal glands.

For both sexes, early puberty correlates with

sexual activity and teenage parenthood, which lead to depression and other psychosocial problems

In the twenty-first century, the beverage most often consumed by U.S. 2- to 18-year-olds is

soda with 11 percent of high school students drinking three or more glasses of soda each day

Finally, by about age 13 or 14

some children hypothesized and tested the reciprocal relationship between weight and distance and developed the correct formula

the increase in height is relatively late, occurring after

spermarche

When students enter a new school with classmates and customs unlike those in their old school, minority students

stereotype threat,

Among those who believed there were marked inequalities, more older adolescents (age 16 to 17) supported systemic solutions

than did younger adolescents (age 14 to 15).

Many high schools begin before 8 A.M., even though the evidence finds

that a later start time improves adolescent learning (

A detailed calculation found that if the United States' average PISA score increased by a mere 25 points

that would result in an increase of $40 trillion in the nation's GDP (gross domestic product, which measures economic production)

The larger and less personal the new institution is, and the more egocentric the student is,

the more difficult the transition.

When did the secular trend stop?

the secular trend stopped at about 1990 in developed nations.

cyberbullying is worse when

the self-image is forming, the imaginary audience is looming, and impulsive thinking often supersedes analytic thinking in early adolescence

Once people of any age reach an emotional conclusion (sometimes called a "gut feeling"),

they resist changing their minds.

Early-maturing girls tend

to have lower self-esteem, more depression, and poorer body image than do other girls

Secondary education

traditionally grades 7 through 12—denotes the school years after elementary or grade school and before college or university

Depression, self-injury behavior, substance abuse, eating disorders, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia have striking developmental patterns corresponding to

transitions in early and late adolescence.

For instance, at age 17, the average girl has

twice the percentage of body fat as her male classmate, whose increased weight is mostly muscle

The typical age of spermarche is just

under 13 years, close to the age for menarche.

PISA

was designed to measure the cognitive abilities needed in adult life, not necessarily the ones that help students in college classes.

Evidence shows that for non-human animals

when under stress, learning slows down at puberty (

amygdala

where intense fear and excitement originate

Biology (circadian rhythms) and culture (parties and technology)

work to make teenagers increasingly sleep-deprived with each year of high school

Many developmentalists find middle schools to be

"developmentally regressive

Klaczynski (2001) concluded that, even though teenagers can use logic,

"most adolescents do not demonstrate a level of performance commensurate with their abilities" (p. 854).

Extensive research finds that four measures have saved hundreds of lives of teenage drivers

(1) requiring more time between issuing a learner's permit and granting a full license, (2) no driving at night, (3) no teenage passengers, and (4) zero tolerance for alcohol and driving

precocious puberty

(sexual development before age 8)


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