Chapters 6,7,8 Human Anatomy and Physiology

Classify joints by functions

(In general) 1. In general Fibrous joints are immovable (Synarthroses) 2. Cartilaginous joints can be slightly movable or rigid joints (Amphiarthroses) 3. Synovial Joints are freely movable joints (Diarthroses)

Describe the structure of the vertebral column

****The vertebral column consists of 26 irregular bones, forming a flexible, curved structure extending from the skull to the pelvis that surrounds and protects the spinal cord. It provides attachment for ribs and muscles of the neck and back. ***

Compare and contrast the major functions of the cranium and paranasal sinuses

...

Indicate a common function of the spinal curvatures and the intervertebral discs

...

List the components of the vertebral column

...

What are the advantages of bones conferred by its organic and inorganic components

...

Name the Major parts of the Axial Skeleton

1. Skull 2. Vertebral column 3. Thoracic cage

Name the most common joint injuries

1. Sprains 2. Cartilage Tears 3. Dislocations

List the seven important functions of bones

1. Support 2. Protection 3. Movement 4. Mineral and growth factor storage 5. Blood cell formation 6. Triglyceride (fat) storage 7. Hormone production

Discuss the symptoms and problems associated with each common joint injury

1. "Sprains" occur when the ligaments reinforcing a joint are stretched or torn. Partially torn ligaments will repair them- selves, but they heal slowly because ligaments are so poorly vas- cularized. Sprains tend to be painful and immobilizing. Completely ruptured ligaments require prompt surgical re- pair because inflammation in the joint will break down the neighboring tissues and turn the injured ligament to "mush." Surgical repair can be difficult: When important ligaments are too severely damaged to be repaired, they must be removed and replaced with grafts or substitute ligaments. For example, a piece of tendon from a muscle, or woven collagen bands, can be stapled to the articu- lating bones. 2. "Cartilage" tears often occur at the knee, when a meniscus is subjected to compression and shear stress at the same time. Cartilage is avascular and it rarely can obtain sufficient nourishment to repair itself, so it usually stays torn. Cartilage fragments (called loose bodies) can interfere with joint function by causing the joint to lock or bind, so most sports physicians recommend that the damaged cartilage be removed. Today, this can be done by arthroscopic surgery 3. "Dislocations" occur when the bones are forced out of alignment.It is usually accompanied by sprains, inflammation, and difficulty in moving the joint. Repeat dislocations of the same joint are common because the initial dislocation stretches the joint capsule and ligaments. The resulting loose capsule provides poor reinforcement for the joint.

Describe seven important functions of bones

1. "Support" -Bones provide a framework that supports the body and cradles the soft organs 2. "Protection"- The fused bones of the skull protect the brain. The rib cage helps protect vital organs of the thorax. The vertebrae surround the spinal cord 3. "Movement"- skeletal muscles attach to the bones by the tendons and use bones as levers to move the body parts and its body 4. "Mineral and growth factor storage"- Bone reservoir for minerals , most important calcium and phosphate. The minerals are released in the bloodstream in their ionic form as needed for distribution to all parts of the body. Mineralized bone matrix stores important growth factors 5. "Blood cell formation"- "hematopoiesis" occurs in the red marrow cavities of certain bones 6. "Triglyceride (fat) storage"- Fat a source of energy for the body is stored in bone cavities 7. "Hormone production"- Bones produce a hormone called osteocalcin which helps regulate bone formation but also protects against obesity, glucose intolerance, and diabetes mellitus

Explain how cartilage grows

1. Appositional growth- results in outward expansion due the production of cartilage matrix on the outer face of the tissue 2. Interstitial growth- results in the expansion from within the cartilage matrix due to division of lacunae-bound Chondrocytes and secretion of matrix.

Compare and contrast the common types of arthritis

1. Arthritis describes many inflammatory or degenerative diseases that damage the joints, resulting in "pain, stiffness, and swelling of the joint". (All arthritis has the same initial symptoms) A. Osteoarthritis is the most common chronic arthritis. It is the result of breakdown of articular cartilage and subsequent thickening of bone tissue, which may restrict joint movement. B. Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic inflammatory disorder that is an autoimmune disease. C. Gouty arthritis results when uric acid is deposited in the soft tissues of the joints.

Name the major regions of the skeleton

1. Axial skeleton 2. Appendicular skeleton

Describe the skeletons relative functions

1. Axial skeleton- Consist of the skull, vertebral column, rib cage. (These bones protect,support or carry other body parts) 2. Appendicular skeleton - consist of the upper and lower limbs (appendages) and the girdles of the shoulder and hip bones. (Limbs help us move (locomotion) from place to place and manipulate our environment )

What are the three common types of Fibrous joints

1. Sutures 2. Syndesmoses 3. Gomphoses

Describe the histology of compact and spongy bone

1. Compact bone The structural unit of compact bone is the osteon, or Haversian system, which consists of concentric tubes of bone matrix (the lamellae) surrounding a central Haversian canal that serves as a passageway for blood vessels and nerves. 2. Spongy bone Spongy bone lacks osteons but has trabeculae that align along lines of stress, which contain irregular lamellae.

What are the three types of cartilage tissue

1. Elastic Cartilage 2. Hyaline Cartilage 3. Fibrocartilage

Describe the functional properties of the 3 types of cartilage tissue

1. Elastic Cartilage - are the most flexible hyaline cartilage and are located only in the external ear and the epiglottis 2. Hyaline Cartilage - is the most abundant skeletal cartilage and includes the articular, costal, respiratory and nasal cartilages 3. Fibrocartilage - is located in the areas that must withstand a great deal of pressure or stretch such as the cartilages of the knee and the intervertebral

Locate the major cartilages of the adult body

1. Elastic Cartilage- External ear and epiglottis 2. Hyaline Cartilage- nose, costal cartilage and articular cartilage of the joints, Thyroid,larynx,cricoid,trachea cartilages, respiratory tube cartilage in the neck and thorax 3. Fibrocartilage- intervertebral disc, pubic symphysis, meniscus (articular disc)

Describe differences in the male and female pelvis and relate these to functional differences

1. Female Structure and functional modifications: Tilted forward; adapted for childbearing; true pelvis defines the birth canal; cavity of the true pelvis is broad, shallow, and has a greater capacity 2. Male Structure and functional modifications: Tilted less far forward; adapted for support of a male's heavier build and stronger muscles; cavity of the true pelvis is narrow and deep

Classify joints by structure

1. Fibrous Joints 2. Cartilaginous Joints 3. Synovial Joints

Name and describe the common body movements

1. Gliding movements- Occurs when one flat, or nearly flat, bone surface glides or slips over another (Side to side , Back and forth) 2. Angular movements- Increase or decrease the angle between two bones (includes flexion,extension,hyperextension, abduction,adduction, circumduction) A. Flexion - decreases the angle of the joint and brings the articulating bones closer together. B. Extension- increases the angle between the articulating bones. C. Dorsiflexion-decreases the angle between the top of the foot and the anterior surface of the tibia D. Plantar flexion decreases the angle between the sole of the foot and the posterior side of the tibia E. Abduction is the movement of a limb away from the midline of the body F. Adduction is the movement of a limb towards the midline of the body. G. Circumduction- is moving the limb so that it describes a cone in the air 3. Rotation movements- is the turning of a bone on its own axis (allowed at the first two cervical vertebrae and is common at the hip and sholder joints)

Compare and contrast Intramembranous ossification and Endochondral ossification

1. Intramembranous ossification: A. Intramembranous ossification forms membrane bone from fibrous connective tissue membranes and results in the cranial bones and clavicles. 2. Endochondral ossification: A. In Endochondral ossification bone tissue replaces hyaline cartilage, B. forms all bones below the skull except for the clavicles.

Name and give an example of each of the three common types of "Fibrous joints"

1. Sutures - ex. Sutures are found in Skull 2. Syndesmoses -ex. Ligaments (Syndesmoses) are found at the distal ends of the tibia and fibula and (Ulna and radius) 3. Gomphoses -ex. articulation of a tooth with its bony alveolar socket.

Describe the elbow, knee, hip, jaw, and shoulder joints in terms of articulating bones, anatomical characteristics of the joint, movements allowed, and joint stability.

1. Knee Joint a. Enclosed in one joint cavity, the knee joint is actually three joints in one: the femoropatellar joint, the lateral and medial joints between the femoral condyles, and the menisci of the tibia, known collectively as the tibiofemoral joint. b. Many different types of ligaments stabilize and strengthen the capsule of the knee joint. c. The knee capsule is reinforced by muscle tendons such as the strong tendons of the quadriceps muscles and the tendon of the semimembranosus. 2. Elbow Joint a. The elbow joint provides a stable and smoothly operating hinge joint that allows flexion and extension only. b. The ligaments involved in providing stability to the elbow joint are the anular ligament, the ulnar collateral ligament, and the radial collateral ligament. c. Tendons of several arm muscles, the biceps and the triceps, also provide additional stability by crossing the elbow joint. 3. Shoulder (Glenohumeral) Joint a. Stability has been sacrificed to provide the most freely moving joint in the body. b. The ligaments that help to reinforce the shoulder joint are the coracohumeral ligament and the three glenohumeral ligaments. c. The tendons that cross the shoulder joint and provide the most stabilizing effect on the joint are the tendon of the long head of the biceps brachii and the four tendons that make up the rotator cuff. 4. Hip (Coxal) Joint a. The hip joint is a ball-and-socket joint that provides a good range of motion. b. Several strong ligaments reinforce the capsule of the hip joint. c. The muscle tendons that cross the joint contribute to the stability and strength of the joint, but the majority of the stability of the hip joint is due to the deep socket of the acetabulum and the ligaments.

What are the 4 bones classes

1. Long bone 2. Short Bone 3. Flat bone 4. Irregular bone

Compare and contrast the four bone classes and provide examples of each class

1. Long bone- are longer than they are wider, have a definite shaft and 2 ends, and consist of all limbs except patella (kneecap), carpals, tarsals 2. Short Bone- are somewhat cube shaped and include the carpals, tarsals and patellas A.Sesamoid bones- Small flat bones that develop inside tendons (patella/kneecap) B. Sutural (wormian) bones - small, flat irregularly shaped bones found between the flat bones of the skull 3. Flat bone- are thin flattened often curved bones that include most of the skull bones, sternum, scapulae and ribs 4. Irregular bone - have a complicated structure that doesn't fit any other class such as the vertebrae and coxae

Describe the (1)cause and (2)consequences of Lyme disease

1. Lyme disease is an inflammatory condition caused by a type of spirochete bacteria transmitted by the bites of ticks living on deer and mice. 2. Results in joint pain and arthritis especially in knees and causes skin rash,flu symptoms and foggy thinking. If not treated can cause Irregular heartbeat and neurological disorder.

Contrast the disorders of bone remolding seen in osteoporosis, osteomalacia and Pagets Disease.

1. Osteoporosis Osteoporosis refers to a group of disorders in which the rate of bone resorption exceeds the rate of formation (pp. 189-191, Fig. 6.16). 1. Bones have normal bone matrix, but bone mass is reduced and the bones become more porous and lighter, increasing the likelihood of fractures. 2. Older women are especially vulnerable to osteoporosis, due to the decline in estrogen after menopause. 3. Other factors that contribute to osteoporosis include a petite body form, insufficient exercise or immobility, a diet poor in calcium and vitamin D, abnormal vitamin D receptors, smoking, and certain hormone-related conditions. 2. Osteomalacia- 3. Pagets Disease-Paget's disease is characterized by excessive bone deposition and resorption, with the resulting bone abnormally high in spongy bone. It is a localized condition that results in deformation of the affected bone

Name the Major parts of the Appendicular Skeleton

1. Pectoral girdle 2. Pelvic girdle 3. Upper limbs 4. Lower limbs

Name the six types of synovial joints based on the movements allowed

1. Plane 2. Hinge 3. Pivot 4. Condylar 5. Saddle 6. Ball and socket joints

Provide examples of the six types of synovial joints based on the movements allowed

1. Plane - Ex. Intercarpal joints 2. Hinge- Ex. Elbow joints 3. Pivot- Ex. Atlantoaxial joint 4. Condylar- Ex. Metacatpophalangeal joints (knuckles) 5. Saddle- Ex. Carpometacarpal joint 6. Ball and socket joints- Ex. Shoulder and hip joints

Indicate the locations and functions of red and yellow bone marrow , Articular cartilage,periosteum, and endosteum

1. Red Bone marrow is located within the trabecular cavities of the spongy bone in long bones and in the diploe (another name for spongy bone) of flat bones *****In long bones, red bone marrow is found in all the medullary cavities and all areas of spongy bone of "infants"***** In "Adults" distribution is restricted to the proximal epiphyses of the humerus and femur 2. Yellow bone marrow- 3. Articular cartilage 4. Periosteum 5. Endosteum

The two types of Cartilaginous joints are

1. Synchondroses (Hyaline cartilage) 2. Symphyses (Fibrocartilage) (Hyaline cartilage)

Name and give examples of each of the two common types of cartilaginous joints

1. Synchondroses- Ex. Epiphyseal plate in long bones 2. Symphyses- Ex. Intervertebral joints (where the vertebral column is)

List three natural factors that stabilize synovial joints

1. The shapes of the articular surfaces 2. The number and positioning of ligaments 3. Muscle tone

Name and describe the bones of the Thoracic cage

1. Thoracic vertebrae (posteriorly) 2. Ribs (Laterally) The sides of the thoracic cage are formed by twelve pairs of ribs that attach posteriorly to the thoracic vertebrae and curve inferiorly toward the anterior body surface. 3. Sternum (anteriorly) A. The sternum (breastbone) lies in the anterior midline of the thorax, and is a flat bone resulting from the fusion of three bones: the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process. B. The manubrium articulates with the clavicles and the first two pairs of ribs. The body articulates with the cartilages of ribs two through seven. The xiphoid process forms the inferior end, articulating only with the body.

Describe the gross anatomy of a typical long bone.

1. they have a tubular diaphysis, consisting of bone collar surrounding a hollow medullary cavity, which is filled with yellow bone marrow in adults 2. Epiphysis are at the ends of the bone and consist of internal spongy bone covered by an outer layer of compact bone and a thin layer of articular cartilage 3. The epiphyseal line is located between the epiphysis and diaphysis and is a remnant of the epiphyseal plate, the hyaline cartilage that provides length wise growth. 4. The external surface of the bone is covered by the periosteum, the location of osteogenic cells 5. The internal surface of the bone is lined by a connective tissue membrane called the endosteum , a location of osteogenic cells within the bone

Identify the skull bones important markings

1/2. Pariental bones 3/4. Temporal bones 5. Frontal bone 6. Occipital Bone 7. Sphenoid Bone 8. Ethmoid Bone Facial Bones-14 bones 1. Mandible 2. Vomer 3/4. Maxillae 5/6. Zygomatics 7/8. Nasals 9/10. Lacrimals 11/12. Palatines 13/14. Inferior nasal conchae

Identify or name the bones of the upper limb

30 bones in the upper limb bones are described regionally as: 1. Arm (brachium) (has only 1 bone) A. Humerus 2. Forearm (antebrachium) (has only 2 bones) A. Ulna B. Radius 3. Hand (manus) (has 27 bones) A. Carpals (Wrist bones) (8) Proximally : 1. Scaphoid 2. Lunate 3. Triquetral 4. Pisiform Distally: 1. Trapezium 2. Trapezoid 3. Capitate 4. Hamate B. Metacarpals (Bones of the palm) (5) Five numbered (1-5) metacarpal bones radiate from the wrist to form the palm (thumb starts first then continues) 1. Metacarpal 1- palm bone area of the thumb (pollex) 2. Metacarpal 2- 3. Metacarpal 3- 4. Metacarpal 4- 5. Metacarpal 5- C. Phalanges (Bones of the fingers) (14 miniature long bones) Number (1-5) each finger has 3 phalanges (distal, middle, proximal) except thumb which has 2 (distal proximal) Example: 1. Phalange 1: distal (thumb bone in the distal area)

Indicate the functional importance of bone markings

Bone markings are projections and depressions and openings found on the surface of bones that function as sites of muscle, ligament, and tendon attachments or as joint surfaces or conduits for blood vessels and nerves

Compare the structures and functions of Bursae and tendon sheaths

Bursae and tendon sheath contain lubricant that reduces friction at synovial joints . They act as ball bearings to reduce friction. "Bursae" are flatten fibrous sacs lined with synovial membrane and contains a thin film of synovial fluid. "Tendon Sheath" is essentially an "elongated" bursa that wraps completely around a tendon subjected to friction like a bun around a hot dog.

Discuss the chemical composition of bone

Chemical Composition of Bone 1. Organic components of bone include cells (osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts) and osteoid (ground substance and collagen fibers), which contribute to the flexibility and tensile strength of bone. 2. Inorganic components make up 65% of bone by mass, and consist of hydroxyapatite, a mineral salt that is largely calcium phosphate, which accounts for the hardness and compression resistance of bone.

Name the bones contributing to the os coxae (hip bones), and relate the pelvic girdles strength to its function

Consist of 3 separate irregular bones during childhood in adulthood they are fused (together they create the os coxae (hip bone) ) 1. ilium 2. ischium 3. pubis Pelvic girdle: Paired with 2 Os coxae (hip bones) and partner posteriorly with the Sacrum and coccyx The pelvic girdle, or hip girdle, attaches the lower limbs to the axial skeleton, transmits the full weight of the upper body to the lower limbs, and supports the visceral organs of the pelvis

Explain how hormones and physical stress regulate bone remolding

Control of Remodeling a. The hormonal mechanism is mostly used to maintain blood calcium homeostasis, and balances activity of parathyroid hormone and calcitonin. b. In response to mechanical stress and gravity, bone grows or remodels in ways that allow it to withstand the stresses it experiences

Describe the Skull bones

Cranium-8 bones 1/2. Parietal bones - are two large rectangular bones on the superior and lateral aspects of the skull, which form the majority of the cranial vault 3/4. Temporal bones- articulate with the parietal bones and form the inferolateral aspects of the skull and parts of the cranial base 5. Frontal bone- articulates with the parietal bones via the coronal sutures 6. Occipital Bone- articulates with the parietal,temporal and sphenoid bones forming most of the posterior wall and base of the skull 7. Sphenoid Bone-spans the width of the middle cranial fossa and articulates with all other cranial bones 8. Ethmoid Bone-lies between the sphenoid and nasal bones and forms most of the bony area between the nasal cavity and the orbits Facial Bones-14 bones 1. Mandible -or lower jawbone articulates with the mandibular fossae of the temporal bones via condylar processes to form the temporomandibular joint 2. Vomer - lies in the nasal cavity where it forms part of the nasal septum 3/4. Maxillae (maxillary)-form the upper jaw and central portion of the face, articulating with all other facial bones except the mandible 5/6. Zygomatics-bones articulate with temporal,frontal, maxillary bones and form the prominences of the cheeks and parts of the inferolateral margin of the orbits 7/8. Nasals-form the bridge of the nose and articulate with the frontal maxillary, and ethmoid bones along with the cartilages that form most of the skeleton of the external nose. 9/10. Lacrimals-are located in the medial wall of the orbits , and articulate with the frontal, ethmoid and maxillary bones. 11/12. Palatines-bones consist of bony plates that complete the posterior portion of the hard palate 13/14. Inferior nasal conchae- are thin curved bones in the nasal cavity that project medially from the lateral walls of the nasal cavity

Describe the Curvatures of the vertebral column

Divisions and Curvatures a. The vertebrae of the spine fall in five major divisions: seven cervical, twelve thoracic, five lumbar, five fused vertebrae of the sacrum, and four fused vertebrae of the coccyx. b. The curvatures of the spine increase resiliency and flexibility of the spine. c. The cervical and lumbar curvatures are concave posteriorly, and the thoracic and sacral curvatures are convex posteriorly.

Describe the process of long bone growth that occurs at the epiphyseal plates

During growth, the epiphyseal plate maintains a constant thickness because the rate of cartilage growth on its epiphysis-facing side is balanced by its replacement with bony tissue on its diaphysis-facing side. As adolescence ends, the chondroblasts of the epiphyseal plates divide less often and the plates become thinner and thin- ner until they are entirely replaced by bone tissue. Longitudinal bone growth ends when the bone of the epiphysis and diaphysis fuses. This process, called epiphyseal plate closure, happens at about 18 years of age in females and 21 years of age in males.

Describe the Relative function of the the Major parts of the Axial skeleton

General function: Protect, support or carry other parts. 1. Skull- Consist of 22 Cranial and facial bones that form the framework of the face, contain cavities for special sense organs, , provide openings for air and food passage, secure the teeth and anchor muscles of facial expressions. 2. Vertebral column- contains 26 irregular bones , forming a flexible, curved structure extending from the skull to the pelvis that surrounds and protects the spinal cord and provided attachment for ribs and muscles of the neck and back. 3. Thoracic cage- consists of the thoracic vertebrae dorsally, the ribs laterally and the sternum and costal cartilages anteriorly , forming a protective cage around the organs of the thoracic cavity and providing support for the shoulder girdles and upper limbs.

Describe the gross anatomy of a typical flat bone.

Flat, short and irregular bones consist of thin plates of periosteum-covered compact bone on the outside and endosteum-covered spongy bone inside, which house bone marrow between the trabeculae

Discuss the structure of a typical vertebra

General Structure of Vertebrae 1. Each vertebra consists of an anterior body and a posterior vertebral arch that, together with the body, form the vertebral foramen through which the spinal cord passes. 2. The vertebral arch consists of two pedicles and two laminae, which collectively give rise to several projections: a median spinous process, two lateral transverse processes, and paired superior and inferior articular processes. 3. The pedicles have notches on their superior and inferior borders called intervertebral foramina, which provide openings for the passage of spinal nerves.

Describe the Relative function of the Major parts of the Appendicular skeleton

General:Use for movement and manipulation of envrionment. 1. Pectoral girdle - A. Consist of the anterior clavicles and the posterior scapulae B. Attaches the upper limbs to the axial skeleton in a manner that allows for maximum movement C. Provide attachment points for muscles that move the upper limbs 2. Pelvic girdle - A. Attaches the lower limbs to the axial skeleton with the strongest ligaments of the body B. Transmits weight of the upper body to the lower limbs C. Supports the visceral organs of the pelvis 3. Upper limbs-provides movement 4. Lower limbs- carries the weight of the erect body, and are subjected to exceptional forces when one jumps or runs

These terms mean

In relation to Joint movement 1. Synarthroses- are immovable (joints) 2. Amphiarthroses- Slightly movable (joints) 3.Diarthroses- Freely movable (joints)

Describe joint or articulation

Is the sites where two or more bones meet. They give our skeleton mobility and they hold it together.

Compare the locations and remodeling functions of the osteoblast, osteocytes and osteoclast

Locations: 1.Osteoblast- 2. Osteocytes 3. Osteoclast Remodeling: 1.Osteoblast 2. Osteocytes 3. Osteoclast

Identify important bone markings of the pectoral girdle

Major markings a. suprascapular notch b. supraspinous and infraspinous fossae c. spine d. acromion e. coracoid process

Name the important markings of the bones of the upper limb

Major markings : Arm: 1. Proximal humerus includes a. head b. anatomical and surgical necks c. greater and lesser tubercles d. intertubercular groove 2. Distal humerus includes a. capitulum b. trochlea c. medial and lateral epicondyles d. coronoid and olecranon fossae 3. Medial portion includes a. radial groove b. deltoid process Forearm: Ulna Major markings: a. olecranon b. coronoid process c. trochlear notch d. radial notch e. styloid process Forearm: Radius Major markings: a. radial tuberosity b. ulnar notch c. styloid process

Describe the regional features of Cervical, Thoracic and lumbar vertebrae

Regional Vertebral Characteristics 1. Cervical vertebrae are the smallest vertebrae. They typically have an oval body, a short, bifid spinous process, a large, triangular vertebral foramen, and a transverse foramen. a. The atlas has no body or spinous process. It has articular facets on the superior and inferior surface that articulate with the skull superiorly, and the second cervical vertebra, the axis, inferiorly. b. The second cervical vertebra has a body, spine, and other typical vertebral processes, as well as a knoblike dens, or odontoid process, projecting superiorly from the body. 2. Thoracic vertebrae all articulate with ribs, and gradually transition between cervical structure at the top, and lumbar structure toward the bottom. a. Thoracic vertebrae have a roughly heart-shaped body, which bear two facets on each side for rib articulation: a circular vertebral foramen and superior and inferior articular processes. 3. Lumbar vertebrae are large vertebrae that have kidney-shaped bodies, a triangular vertebral foramen, short, thick pedicles and laminae, and short, flat, hatchet-shaped spinous processes.

Describe the steps of fracture repair

Repair of fractures involves four major stages: 1. Hematoma formation: When a bone breaks, blood vessels in the bone and periosteum, and perhaps in surrounding tis- sues, are torn and hemorrhage. As a result, a hematoma (hemah-tomah), a mass of clotted blood, forms at the fracture site. Soon, bone cells deprived of nutrition die, and the tissue at the site becomes swollen, painful, and inflamed. 2. Fibrocartilaginous callus formation: Within a few days, several events lead to the formation of soft granulation tissue, also called the soft callus (kalus; "hard skin"). Capillaries grow into the hematoma and phagocytic cells invade the area andbegin cleaning up the debris. Meanwhile, fibroblasts and osteoblasts invade the fracture site from the nearby perios- teum and endosteum and begin reconstructing the bone. The fibroblasts produce collagen fibers that span the break and connect the broken bone ends, and some differentiate into chondroblasts that secrete cartilage matrix. Within this mass of repair tissue, osteoblasts begin forming spongy bone, but those farthest from the capillary supply secrete an externally bulging cartilaginous matrix that later calci- fies. This entire mass of repair tissue, now called the fibrocartilaginous callus, splints the broken bone. 3. Bony callus formation: Within a week, new bone trabeculae begin to appear in the fibrocartilaginous callus and gradually convert it to a bony (hard) callus of spongy bone. Bony callus formation continues until a firm union is formed about two months later. 4. Remodeling of the bony callus: Beginning during bony callus formation and continuing for several months after, the bony callus is remodeled. The excess material on the diaphysis exterior and within the medullary cavity is removed, and compact bone is laid down to reconstruct the shaft walls. The final structure of the remodeled area resembles that of the original unbroken bony region because it responds to the same set of mechanical stressors.

Describe the structural characteristics of synovial joints

Synovial joints have a structure that allow free movement about the joint. They have six distinguishing features 1. Articular cartilage- Covers the ends of articulating bone 2. Joint cavity-is a space that is filled with synovial fluid 3. Articular capsule-is a two layered articular capsule, consisting of a fibrous layer and a synovial membrane, enclose the joint cavity. 4. Synovial fluid- is a viscous fluid that fills all free space within the joint cavity 5. Reinforcing ligaments- cross synovial joints to strengthen the joint 6. Nerves and blood vessels- There is a rich supply of nerves innervating the capsule that detects pain and stretch and blood vessels supplying the synovial membrane ,giving rise to capillaries that provide filtrate that becomes synovial fluid

Describe the general structure of cartilaginous joints

The articulating bones are united by cartilage. They lack a joint cavity and have very little mobility

Identify bones forming the pectoral girdle and their arrangements to the function of this girdle

The pectoral girdle is very light and has a high degree of mobility due to the openness of the shoulder joint and the free movement of the scapula across the thorax. 1. Scapulae: The scapulae (shoulder blades) are thin, flat bones that lie on the dorsal surface of the rib cage, articulating with the humerus via the glenoid cavity, and the clavicle via the acromion 2. Clavicle: The clavicles (collarbones) extend horizontally across the thorax, articulating medially with the sternum, and laterally with the scapula, bracing the arms and scapulae laterally

Describe the general structure of fibrous joints

The structure of the fibrous joints is fibrous tissue namely Dense fibrous connective tissue. They lack a joint cavity and provide little to know movement.

Name the Skull bones

There are a total of 22 Bones in the entire skull they are divided into Cranium and Facial bones Cranium -8 bones 1/2. Pariental bones 3/4. Temporal bones 5. Frontal bone 6. Occipital Bone 7. Sphenoid Bone 8. Ethmoid Bone Facial Bones-14 bones 1. Mandible 2. Vomer 3/4. Maxillae 5/6. Zygomatics 7/8. Nasals 9/10. Lacrimals 11/12. Palatines 13/14. Inferior nasal conchae Total 8 +14= 22

Differentiate True from False bones

True ribs- The superior seven pairs of ribs are called true, or vertebrosternal, ribs. They attach directly to the sternum via individual costal cartilages. 2. False ribs- The lower five pairs of ribs are called false ribs. They either attach indirectly to the sternum or lack a sternal attachment entirely.