Chapters 8-9

differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA)

-one of the most frequently used and successful behavior analytic procedures to decrease inappropriate behaviors -an inappropriate or challenging behavior is replaced by a behavior considered as more appropriate, positive, or standard -DRA refers to reinforcing an alternative behavior, the performance of which decreases the likelihood that the inappropriate behavior will be performed

extinction

-reduces behavior by withholding or terminating the positive reinforcer that maintains an inappropriate target behavior -this abrupt withdrawal results in the cessation or extinction of behavior -extinction is the goal -many inappropriate behavior's, are also maintained by positive reinforcement -extinction is most often used in the classroom to decrease behaviors that are maintained by teacher attention -ignoring inappropriate behavior -teacher withholds the previously given positive reinforcer (attention), and the inappropriate behavior extinguishes or dies out -extinction has also been used to increase the variety of types of responses within a class o behaviors, such as increasing the variability in communicative gestures of individuals with severe disabilities -extinction may be used to reduce two behaviors that occur in a chin -extinction is most often used in conjunction with reinforcing other, more appropriate behaviors

natural reinforcement

-reinforcement is a naturally occurring process -structured reinforcement system in the classroom has at least four purposes 1. manage behavior 2. the imposition of artificial high-intensity reinforcing stimuli provides visible connections between behavior and its consequences 3. a classroom reinforcement system provides in microcosm a learning laborite for how reinforcement works in the everyday world 4. teach students to value a more general and natural pool of reinforcers

restitutional overcorrection

-requires that the student restore or correct an environment that he or she has disturbed not only to its original condition but beyond that -1. in cases were objects were disturbed or rearranged 2. in cases where someone annoyed or frightened others 3. in cases of self-inflicted real infection 4. in cases of agitation

sensory extinction

-sensory consequences rather than teacher consequences may be maintaining the behavior -when sensory consequences can be identified as the reinforcer of a behavior, the form of extinction known as sensory extinction may be employed -sensory extinction attempts to remove the naturally occurring sensory consequence of the behavior -difficulties may arise using sensory extinction with precision if identification of the reinforcing sensory consequence is unclear, and if there is difficulty eliminating all the sensory consequences inherent in many commonly occurring stereotypical responses -sometimes intermittent reinforcement works to maintain inappropriate behavior

limited generalizability

-the behavior may occur just as frequently in settings where extinction is not in effect -behavior in other settings is unaffected when extinction is used only in one setting -is the behavior likely to be imitated -are the reinforcers known -can reinforcement be withheld -halve alternative behaviors been identified for reinforcement

positive reinforcement

-the contingent presentation of a stimulus, immediately following a response, that increases the future rate or probability of the response -won't present the consequence to the student unless and until the requested response is produced -a positive reinforcer is a consequential stimulus that 1. increases or maintains the future rate or probability of occurrence of a behavior 2. is administered contingent upon the production of a desired or requested behavior 3. administered immediately following the production of the desired or requested behavior

extinction-induced aggression

-the pattern of escalation and aggression that occurs in the early stages of extinction

activity reinforcers

-the secondary reinforcement perhaps most often used by teachers -referred to as the premark principle -individuals engage in certain behaviors at low frequencies, so these behaviors have a low probability of occurrence -other behaviors are engaged in at high frequencies and therefore have a high probability of occurrence -the student can set the sequence of preferred and less preferred activities -limitations to the use of activity reinforcers: access to some high-preference activities can't alway immediately follow the low-prefernace behavior, thereby reducing get effectiveness of the high-preference behavior as a reinforcer -an activity may often me an all-or-nothing enterprise. it is either earned or not earned. This may limit flexibility in administration of the reinforcer -many activities must be freely available to students without reference to their performance -the use of an activity reinforcer may cause an interruption in the continuous performance of the target behavior

time-out procedures

-decrease behavior by denying a student, for a fixed period of time, the opportunity to receive reinforcement -a shortened form of the term time-out from positive reinforcement

overcorrection

-developed as a behavior-reduction procedure that includes training in appropriate behaviors -taught through an exaggeration of experience -restitutional overcorrection is used when a setting has been disturbed by a student's misbehavior -positive practice overcorrection: used when the form of behavior is inappropriate

secondary reinforcers

-eventually replace primary reinforcers -include social stimuli i.e. praise, -don't have biological importance to individuals -their value has been learned or conditioned -secondary reinforcers are often called conditioned reinforcers

negative practice

requires that the student repeatedly perform the inappropriate behavior -will result in response fatigue or satiation -used to reduce small motor behavior

stimulus satiation

-depends on the student becoming satiated with the antecedent to the behavior

ratio schedules

-the number of times a target behavior occurs determines the timing of reinforcer deliver -fixed-ratio schedule; the student is reinforced on completion of a specified number of correct responses -student has a higher rate of responding than on CRF schedules -may result in inappropriate fluencies for a given behavior -postreinforcmeent pause: thee student will often stop responding for a period of time following delivery of the reinforcer -variable ratio schedule: the target response is reinforced on the average of a specified number of correct responses -maintains a moderate and consistent rate of correct responding

controlling attention

1. become very involved with another student 2. read something or write busily 3. recite epic poetry subvolcally 4. carry a worry rock or beads 5. stand outside the classroom door and kick the wall for a minute

disadvantages of aversive stimuli

1. students may strike back. become withdrawn, or engage in an escape and avoidance behavior 2. students may learn an inappropriate aggressive form of behavior by modeling what the teacher does 3. students may come to fear and avoid the teacher or the entire setting in which the punishment occurred 4. a child may find making an adult lose control and look ridiculous very reinforcing

imitation or reinforcement by others

-a number of students may perform the misbehavior instead of just one making the behavior that much harder to ignore -relies on the teacher's ability to terminate the reinforcing stimulus for the inappropriate behavior -teacher may have to test several suspicions systematically, attempting to eliminate one potential reinforcer at a time -difficult to control the reinforcing consequences delivered by your peers

group contingencies and peer mediation

-extremely effective means of managing some students' behavior -foster interdependence and may results in increasing cooperative behavior among students -increase supportive prompts, such as sharing assistance, among disabled and non disabled peers -peer pressure is a powerful tool in group contingencies -so powerful that group contingencies should be used with caution to avoid the negative side effect of undue pressure on some members of a group -must minimize the possibility of some members' performing the target behavior for others

intermittent schedules

-follows some, but not all, correct or appropriate responses -put of satiation effects -more resistant to extinction -requires greater numbers of correct responses for reinforcement

making reinforcers contingent

-if reinforcement is to be effective, the student must receive the reinforcer only after performing the target behavior in an "if...then..." relationship

behavior reduction

-least intrusive alternative: when detaining which intervention to choose, an important consideration is the intervention's level of intrusiveness -the least intrusive intervention is the least aversive or the lowest on the hierarchy -the least aversive treatment should be selected -effectiveness is key as well -selection of an intervention should be based on the identified function of the challenging behavior -concurrent instruction of a functionally equivalent alternative behavior must occur -movement along the hierarchy must be data based -a point of consolation and permission must be established -may include conducting a functional assessment or functional analysis and developing a behavior support plan

using negative reinforcement for instruction

-negative reinforcement is often used in conjunction with behavior programs based on the results of a functional assessment -students may engage in attempts to escape and avoid demanding tasks, social interactions with adults or peers, etc -escape is allowed based on a contingency set by the teacher rather than as a reaction to the student inappropriate behavior -simultaneous positive reinforcement of an alternative means of achieving escape -use of aversive stimuli in the classroom should be minimized

response-cost procedures

-occurs when reinforcers are removed in an attempt to reduce behavior -the procedure itself may be defined as the withdrawal of specific amounts of reinforcer contingent on inappropriate behavior -if the use of a response-cost procedure empirically results in the desired behavior reduction, withdrawal of the reinforcement functions as a punisher -a token system can incorporate response-cost procedures -response-cost procedures have shown to be effective in reducing a variety of behaviors, without the undesirable side effects usually associated with punishment -also have been used to improve academic performance such as completion of math problems, etc -a teacher must have the ability to withdraw the reinforcer once given -careful consideration must also be given to the magnitude of the penalties -once the reinforcement system has become debased to this extent, the student energy involved in being good far outweighs the remaining amount of the reinforcer -students must clearly understand there uses of behavior and the penalties for infractions

spontaneous recovery

-possible, temporary reappearance of an extinguished behavior -may occur after the behavior has been extinguished for some times -the student trees once again to see if the extinction rule is still in effect or if it is in effect with all the teachers with whom she comes in contact -ignoring this reemergence of the behavior can quickly terminate it -failure to ignore it, may result in rapid relearning on the part of the student

negative reinforcement

-the contingent removal of an aversive stimulus immediately following a response that increases the future rate or probability of the response -a form of reinforcement is taking place but removal of something from the student environment -the teacher will not remove the aversive condition unless and until the requested response is performed -works because the student performs the behavior to escape and thereby terminate an aversive stimulus -not necessary for an aversive stimulus to be present for negative reinforcement to work -also works when a student performs some behavior to avoid an aversive stimulus -often serves to establish and maintain behaviors teachers would rather their students not demonstrate

choosing effective reinforcers

-what serves as a reinforcer for a particular student depends on several factors, including the student's reinforcement history, student's deprivation state, the perceived value of the reinforcer, consistency, and age appropriateness -reinforcer sampling: individualize reinforcers -students can be asked what they would like as a result of their effort or achievement -using a prepared reinforcer menu -a variety of choices is necessary -or give a choice between two items or two categories of items -those who are non-verbal, use the tangible objects from a variety of categories 1. single-item presentation-one item at a time is presented to the student either prior to or embedded within instruction or activities 2. choice or forced choice presentation items are presented in pairs from which the student is to select the preferred item 3. multiple stimulus presentation-mix of objects, words, pictures

increased rate

-increase in the rate, duration, or intensity of the behavior before significant reduction occurs -it's going to get worse before it gets better -often referred to as a burst of the behavior -once an extinction procedure has been implemented, the teacher absolutely must continue ignoring whatever escalate of the behavior occurs

exclusion time-out procedures

-involves removing the student form an activity as a means of denying access to reinforcement -student may be taken to another room, but isn't necessary to remove the student from the classroom completely -student is removed to a chair facing away from the group, facing a corner -when a student misbehaved during an activity for which she was earning tokens, she was placed in the middle of the room out of reach of the work activity and thereby denied access to earning tokens -this proceeder has been reserved for behaviors such as physical aggression and destruction of property

tangible reinforcers

-items that are concrete and can sometimes be delivered immediately -i.e. books, toys play doh, etc -tangible items may be subject to satiation effects similar to those of edible items -tangible reinforcers can also include awards such as certificates, badges, and trophy or one's own copy of the driver's education manual

nooexlusion time-out procedures

-the student is not removed from the instructional setting -the teacher denies the student access to reinforcers through a temporary manipulation of the environment -time-out ribbon model: student's ribbon was removed for any instance of misbehavior. Removal signaled an end to teacher attention and an end to the student's participation in actives and access to reinforcers for 3 minutes -contingent observation: moving students to the edge of an activity so that they can still observe other students' appropriate behavior and its reinforcement.

non-step sequence for selecting potential reinforcers

1. consider age, interests, appetites of the person whose behaviors you wish to strengthen 2. consider the behavior you wish to strengthen through reinforcement 3. list potential reinforcers considering what you know of the person, age, interests, likes and dislikes, and the specific behavior you have defined 4. the premark principle; when selecting potential reinforcers, the teacher should consider watching the student and noting activities in which he likes to engage 5. consider asking the person 6. consider novel reinforcers; varying the reinforcers is more effective than using the same reinforcers over and over 7. consider reinforcers that are natural 8. select the reinforcer or reinforcers you will use 9. make a record of the behavior -reinforcers identified by a paired-item method of assessment appear to be more stable than those identified by the single-item preference method

inadvertent use

1.student is confronted with an aversive stimulus 2. student engages in inappropriate behavior 3. teacher removes aversive stimulus 4. student is negatively reinforced for the inappropriate behavior 5. the next time the student is confronted by the aversive stimulus, the cycle is repeated -factor influencing behavior maintained by negative reinforcement is teacher attention resulting from attempts to escape. This is both negative reinforcement, because the student has been allowed to stop doing the aversive take, and positive reinforcement, because the teacher's behavior is often quite entertaining

reinforcement

used to describe pleasant events or rewards given to a person who complies with the demands of some behavior-change agent -associated with the stereotypic manipulative view of behavior modification -describes a relationship between two environmental events, a behavior and an event or consequence that follows the response -relationship is termed reinforcement only if the response increases or maintains its rate as a result of the consequence -positive reinforcement: the contingent presentation of a consequence that increases behavior -negative reinforcement: the contingent removal of some unpleasant stimulus that increases behavior

non contingent reinforcement

-NCR provides the student the reinforcer that is maintaining an inappropriate behavior independently of his performance of the behavior -the student receives the reinforcer not when she performs the inappropriate behavior but at preselected intervals of time -this serves to disassociate the reinforcer from the behavior and results in the behavior's decrease -while NCR is in place,e the inappropriate behavior is essentially on extinction -the inappropriate behavior is ignored, and there is systematic delivery of reinforcers independent of performance of the inappropriate behavior -no behavior is systematically strengthened as a result of NCR because the reinforcers are delivered at intervals regardless of what the student is doing -during NCR< deliver is time scheduled -access to positive or negative reinforcement may be delivered on a fixed time schedule or variable time schedule -NCR is typical y administered initially on a dense, often continuous, schedule -once the inappropriate behavior is reduce to acceptable levels, the schedule is thinned -a potential unintended effect of NCR is adventitious, or addicental, reinforcement of the inappropriate behavior that is the goal of the intervention -it's possible for a reinforcer to be delivered right after the inappropriate behavior occurs -a denser CNR schedule would be more likely to proceed adventitious reinforcement than a leaner schedule

differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI)

-a DRA proceeder that reinforces a behavior that is topographically incompatible with the behavior targeted for reaction -mutually exclusive behaviors are chosen so that an inappropriate response makes it physically impossible for the student to engage in the inappropriate behavior -allows for increasing the strength or rate of the appropriate behavior and decreasing the probability of the appropriate e behavior 1. a behavior that is incompatible with the undesirable behavior must be chosen 2. baseline should be recorded to determine how often the inappropriate behavior occurs and how often the chosen incompatible behavior occurs 3. schedule of reinforcement must be determined. -each time the student attempts the inappropriate behavior, one of two procedures is implemented 1. performance of the inappropriate behavior is ignored and the alternative behavior is reinforced or performance of the inappropriate behavior is interrupted and redirected to performance of the alternative behavior which is then reinforced -in some instances DRA is combined with a mild punisher -with older, high-functioning students, DRA often involves instruction and reinforcement of more appropriate social skills -use of DRA involves instruction and reinforcement of a more standard means of communication -functional equivalency training: a DRA procedure in which selection of an alternative replacement behavior is based on function 1. the alternative behavior serves the same function as the behavior being replaced 2. the student, parents, general public view the alternative behavior as more appropriate 3. the alternative behavior requires equal or less physical effort and complexity 4. the alternative behavior results in the same type, quantity, and intensity of reinforcer 5. the alternative behavior is reinforced on the same schedule 6. there is no greater delay between performance of the alternative behavior and its reinforcement than there was with the original behavior 7. the alternative behavior is eventually maintain day natural reinforcers

punishment

-a punisher is a consent stimulus that 1. decreases the future rate or probability of occurrence of behavior 2. administered contingently on the production of the undesired or inappropriate behavior 3. administered immediately following the production of the undesired or inappropriate behavior -a punisher can be identified only by its effect on behavior -may also be naturally occurring phenomena

making reinforcement immediate

-a reinforcer should initially be delivered immediately after the target behavior is performed -helps the student make the connection between a particular behavior and its consequence -eventually the teacher will want to introduce a delay between the behavior and the reinforcer which is known as a schedule of reinforcement and is discussed later in this chapter

differential reinforcement of the other behaviors

-a reinforcing stimulus is delivered contingent on the target behavior's not being emitted for a specified period of time -DRO reinforces only zero occurrences 1. reinforcement contingent on the nonoccurence of a behavior throughout a specified time period 2. reinforcement contingent on the nonoccurence of a behavior within a time period that has been divided into smaller intervals 3. may be used with permanent-product data -reinforcement be delivered if the student doesn't perform the target behavior, no matter what else he does -reinforces the absence of a behavior the effectiveness of a DRO procedure may depend on the reinforcer selected 1. baseline must be recorded not only to measure the inappropriate behavior, but also to schedule the DRO procedure properly 2. criteria must be established for increasing the length of the DRO interval 3. possible occurrence of the undesirable behavior necessitates two additional decisions a. whether to reset the DRO interval following a response occurrence or merely to wait for the next scheduled interval and b. whether to deliver a consequence for a response occurrence in any other way or to just ignore it 4. reinforcement should not be delivered immediately following a grossly inappropriate behavior even if the DRO interval has expired without the target response having occurred

response-duration schedules

-continuous amount of time of a target behavior is the determinant for delivery of the reinforcer -fixed-response-duration schedule: student is reinforced following completion of a specified number of minutes or seconds of appropriate behavior -a pause following reinforcement may be seen -the pause appears to be related to the length of the required time period for appropriate behavior -the longer the time period, the longer the pause -variable-response-duration schedule: minimizes these problems. continuous appropriate behavior is reinforced on the average of a specified time period

appropriate means of escape

-functional communication training: students can be taught a more standard and appropriate means of communicating the need for assistance or for a break -students can also perceive teachers' behavior as aversive -i.e. threatening facial expressions, sarcasm, nagging, etc -asking a student with behavior disorders to perform tasks without sufficient information is associated with higher rates of disruptive behavior. If the student doesn't understand the instruction, he may choose to be disruptive and thereby escape further instruction rather than risk embarrassment due to responding incorrectly -disadvantages are escape and tantrums,etc -especially likely to happen when difficult demands or takes are placed on students with limited behavioral repertoires

social reinforcers

-have been proven effective not only for teachers in changing and maintaining student behavior but also for students in changing and maintaining teacher behavior -expressions -proximity -contact -privileges -words and phrases 1. praise must be delivered contingent on performance of the behavior to be reinforced 2. teacher praise should specify the behavior or particulars of the behavior being reinforced 3. the praise should sound sincere

procedural alternatives for behavior reduction

-level I: differential reinforcement of low rates of behavior, differential reinforcement of other behaviors, differential reinforcement of incompatible behaviors, differential reinforcement of alternative behaviors, non contingent reinforcement level II: using extinction means withholding or no longer delivering the reinforcers the maintain a behavior level III: contains the first set of options using what will be defined as a punishing conseuence-still do not require the application of an aversive stimulus -mirror image of negative reinforcement -level II options require removal or denial of a desirable stimulus in order to decrease behavior -level IV-used after unsuccessful attempts at the first three levels have been documented. Options include the application of unconditioned or conditioned aversive stimuli or the use of an overreaction procedure

schedules of reinforcement

-patterns of timing for delivery of reinforcers -continuous schedule of reinforcement: each time the student produces the target response, she or he immediately receives a reinforcer -high rate of responding because there is a lot of reinforcement relative to performance -increase in the number of trails -most useful when students are learning new behaviors 1. student whose behavior is on a CRF schedule amy become satiated on the reinforcer, especially if a primary reinforcer s being used 2. continuous delivery of reinforcers may lead to accusations that teachers are leading students to expect reinforcement every time they do as they are told 3. CRF schedules are not the most efficient way to maintain a behavior following its initial acquisition or control -extinction could occur

contracting

-placing the contingency for reinforcement into a written document -in the contract itself, the teacher creates a permanent product that can be referred to fi questions arise -contract should contain precisely written statements describing the behavior requires -include the parameters within which the behavior is to be performed -student should understand the method that will be used to evaluate performance -include either type, amount, and method of delivery of the reinforcement -dates for an interim and final review should appear in the contract -interim date reminds the teacher of the need to monitor progress and allows renegotiation if the behavior required is unrealistic 1. the contract reward should be immediate 2. initial contract should call for and reward small approximations 3. reward frequently with small amounts 4. reward accomplishment rather than obedience 5. reward the performance after it occurs 6. contract must be fair 7. terms of the contract must be clear 8. the contract must be honest 9. the contract must be positive 10. contracting as a method must be used systematically

primary reinforcers

-primary reinforcers are stimuli that have biological importance to an individual -natural, unlearned, or unconditioned reinforcers -highly motivating to individual students -i.e. foods, liquids, sleep, shelter and sex -edible reinforcers are used mainly when teaching new behaviors to younger students and students with severe disabilities. -primary reinforcers may be perceived by older students as insulting i.e. giving them candy -for primary reinforcers to be effective, the student whose behavior is to be reinforced must be in a state of deprivation in relation to that reinforcer -satiation: occurs when the deprivation state that existed at the beginning of an instructional session no longer exists, and the student's cooperation and attention have worn thin -ways to prevent or delay satiation: 1. reinforcers selected by a student are more motivating than those chosen by the teacher 2. assign a particular reinforcer to each task or behavior 3. at the onset of nation, try switching to an alternative reinforcer 4. shorten the instruction session in which the edible reinforcer is being used 5. decreased the size of the pieces of the edible reinforcer given for correct responses 6. do not provide a reinforcer for every correct response. Require more performance from the student for a reinforcer 7. use multiple reinforcers, preferably those that occur naturally. -using sensory reinforcers which are primary reinforcers as well

presentation of aversive stimuli

-rapidly stops the occurrence of a behavior and has some long-term effects 0the use of aversive stimuli facilities learning by proving a clear discrimination between acceptable and unacceptable -the aversive consequence following a student inappropriate behavior vividly illustrates to other student the results of engaging in that behavior and therefore tends to lessen the probability that others will engage in the behavior -not recommending the use of aversive consequences -1. demonstrated and documented failure of alternative non aversive procedures to modify the target behavior 2. informed written consent of the student parents or legal guardians 3. the decision to implement an aversive procedure made by a designated body of qualified professionals 4. a prearrange timetable for review of theeffeectiveness of the procedure 5. periodic observation to ensure staff members' consistent and reliable administration 6.documentation of the effectiveness 7. administration of the procedure by only designated staff members 8. positive reinforcement of incompatible behavior

token reinforcers

-symbolic representations exchangeable for some item or activity of value to students -use of token is analogous to the use of money in general society -can be exchangeable for a wide variety of primary and secondary reinforcers -tokens themselves should have no innate value; the backup items should have the value to the students -the teacher explains that tokens are needed to acquire the backup reinforcers -tokens are a means to an end -students must clearly understand they are working for these tokens to exchange them at some point for the second component of the token system, the backup reinforcer -students will know what behaviors are required, the description of each behavior to be performed, and the parameters of acceptability should be clearly stated or posted -exchange period should take place at the end of each day or week -tokens be paid frequently in the early states and then gradually decrease in frequency -exchanging tokens for backup reinforcers is most common in the classroom store 1. instead of having a designated day for exchanging tokens, an exchange may be allowed as soon as the student has earned enough tokens for a particular item 2. immediate and delayed exchange may be combined 3. the color or some other characteristic of tokens can be changed monthly or quarterly 4. limit the number of tokens a student can accumulate and enforce this limit -a backup reinforcer that may encourage spending tokens is "time"-using tokens to equal free time -point system for doing good things in class

variations in administration of reinforcers

-teacher presents the antecedent discriminative stimulus -the student performs the requested response -the teacher presents the student with an appropriate reinforcer -individualized contingencies, standardized contingencies, and group contingencies -dependent, independent, and interdependent group-oriented contingency systems -dependent group-oriented contingency system: same response contingencies are simultaneously in effect for all group members but are applied only to the performances of one or more selected group members -independent group-oriented contingency system: the same response contingencies are simultaneously in effect for all group members but are applied to performances on an individual basis -interdependent group-oriented contingency:the same response contingencies are simultaneously in effect for all group members but are applied to a level of group performance 1. contingency is stated so that each group member must achieve a set criterion level 2. contingency is stated such that each group member's performance meets a criterion average for the entire group 3. contingency is stated so that the class, as a group, must reach a single highest or lowest level of performance

thinning schedules of reinforcement

-temporary structure used to produce rapid behavior change -helps decrease dependence on artificial reinforcers and helps students learn to delay gratification -reinforcement gradually becomes available less often and becomes contingent on grater amount of appropriate behavior -teacher moves from a dense schedule to a sparse schedule -should result in higher, steadier levels of responding as a result of moving to variable schedules -decreasing expectation of a reinforcement -maintenance of the behavior over longer periods of times -removal of the teacher as a necessary behavior monitor -transfer of control from the reinforcer to more traditional methods, such as praise and attention -an increase in persistence in responding toward working for goals that require greater amounts of correct responding -ability in educational settings to deliver reinforcers on a relatively lean schedule -ratio strain: occurs when the schedule has been thinned so quickly that the ratio for correct responding and reinforcement is too large, so that the student doesn't earn a reinforcer often enough to maintain responding and the rate decreases significantly

differential reinforcement of lower rates of behavior

-the application of a specific schedule of reinforcement, used to decrease the rate of behaviors that although tolerable are inappropriate when they occur too often or too rapidly -contributing to a class discussion is a desirable behavior; dominating a class discussion is not -interresponse-time DRL: a reinforcer was delivered contingent on response, provided that a minimum period of time had elapsed since the previous reinforced response. To decrease the total number of occurrences within a total time period, it is necessary only to increase the minimum period of time that must pass before another response will be reinforced -compares the total number of responses in an entire session with a preset criterion -a reinforcer is delivered if occurrences are at or below that criterion -once the behavior has stabilized, the length of the interval is increased, so that the student may interrupt -the student would be allowed only two interruptions during the sessions -DRL may be arranged in a manner analogous to using a changing criterion design 1. baseline must be recorded to determine the average number of responses per full session 2. reasonably spaced criteria should be established when using successively decreasing DRL limits to avoid too frequent reinforcement and ratio strain 3. a decision must be made as to whether or not to provide feedback to the student concerning the cumulative number of responses during the session -advantage is the ability to reduce the occurrence of the behavior through delivery of reinforcement -not a rapid means of changing behavior, and is inappropriate for use with violent or dangerous behavior

delayed reaction

-the effects of extinction are not usually immediate -extinction procedure may take considerable time to produce reduction in behavior -once reinforcement is withheld, behavior continues for an indeterminate amount of time -resistance to extinction is particularly marked when behaviors have been maintained on intermittent reinforcement schedules -not all self-injurious behavior is resistant to extinction

interval schedules

-the occurrence of at least one correct or appropriate response plus the passage of a specific amount of the time are the determinants for delivery of the reinforcer -fixed-interval schedule" the student is reinforced the first time he or she performs the target response following the elapse of a specified number of minutes or seconds -behaviors occur at a relatively low rate as compared with behaviors on ratio schedules -rate of responding eventually is noticeably lower for a short time after each reinforcement -fixed interval scallop: decrease in correct responding noticed because of the appearance of data when plotted on a cumulative graph -variable-interval schedule: intervals are of different lengths, but their average length is consistent. behaviors under a VI schedule are performed at moderate, steadier rates across intervals without the appearance of fixed-interval scallops -limited hold contingency: technique for increasing the rate of responding under an interval schedule. restricts the time the reinforcer is available following the interval. Students have to respond quickly to earn reinforcers

positive-practice overcorrection

-the student who has engaged in an inappropriate behavior is required to engage in exaggerated or overly correct practice of the appropriate behavior -the practice should be of an alternative appropriate behavior similar to the inappropriate behavior -overcorrection procedures should not be allowed to become positively reinforcing 1. telling the student she or he behavior inappropriately 2. stopping the student's ongoing activity 3. providing systematic verbal instructions for the overcorrection activity in which the student is to engage 4. forcing the practice of correctional behavior 5. returning the student to the ongoing activity 1. implementation of overcorrection requires the full attention of the teacher 2. tend to be time consuming, sometimes lasting 5 -15 minutes or longer 3. teacher should be aware of the possibility of aggression by the student 4. during long periods of overcorrection, the student may become so disruptive that the teacher can't guide him through the overcorrection procedure 5. may be a very aversive procedure to the adults implementing it 6. use without reinforcement resulted in a greater incidence of undesirable side effects 7. overcorrection may provide an alternative to aversive consequences in the classroom

pairing

-to avoid dependence upon primary reinforcers, secondary reinforcers should always be in conjunction with some primary reinforcers -we condition or teach the student to be motivated by the secondary reinforcer alone -once this association has been established, the secondary reinforcer may be as effective s the primary reinforcer and the teachers can gradually withdraw the primary reinforcer

aversive stimuli

-unconditioned aversive stimuli: result in physical pain or discomfort, include consequences that result in annoyance, discomfort, or irritation. Personal restraint, mechanical restrain, and see restraint 1. restraint doesn't involve the reinforcement of an alternative behavior 2. the inappropriate behavior may be reinforced by manual restraint, thereby increasing the probability of future occurrences 3. once the student learns that he will be physical blocked from performing the response, he is likely to increase his efforts to perform it 4. implementation may result in harm to the student or the teacher -conditional aversive stimuli: stimuli a person learns to experience as aversive as a result of pairing with an unconditioned aversive stimulus -warnings, words, vocal tones, or gestures -verbal reprimands -denying access to a requested activity with an explanation, denying access to the requested activity but offering an opportunity to engage in a preferred alternative activity, denying immediate access to the requested activity but permitting delayed access contingent on the completion of a low-prefernace demand -teacher should avoid extended episodes of punishment -consequences should be quick and directly to the point -gradual habituation may eventually lead the teacher to administer an intensity level far above what was originally considered necessary to terminate the student's misbehavior

generalized conditioned reinforcers

-when a reinforcer has been associated with a variety of other primary or secondary reinforcers -get their value by association with other reinforcers -praise from the teacher has been paired with opportunity to use the computer -another type is those that are exchangeable for something of value i.e. money -isn't dependent on a single type of deprivation, and are less susceptible to satiation than other types of reinforcers 1. permit the reinforcement of a response at any time and allow sequences of responses to be reinforced without interruption 2. may be used to maintain performance over extended periods of time and are less subject to satiation effects due to their reinforcing properties and their relative independence of deprivation states 3. provide the same reinforcement for individual who have different preferences

advantages of using tokens compared to generalized social reinforcers

1. tokens bear a simple quantitative relation to the amount of reinforcement 2. tokens ar portable and can be in the student's possession even when in a situation far removed form the classroom 3. no maximum exists on the number of tokens a subject may posses 4. tokens can be continuously present during the period between earning them and exchanging them 5. the physical characteristics of the tokens can be easily standardized 6. the tokens can be made durable so they will not deteriorate before being exchanged 7. tokens can be made unique and non duplicable 8. the use of tokens provides the student with a tangible means of continuous feedback 9. the use of tokens enables more precise control by the teacher over administration of reinforcers 10. tokens can be carried by the teacher and delivered unobtrusively 11. A system of token reinforcement allows for differential valuing of performance 12. a system of token reinforcement allows for differential valuing of performance 13. a system of token reinforcement allows the student to become accustomed to delayed gratification of wants 14. the most important advantage a token system provides is its ease of generalizability 15. tokens can often maintain behavior at a higher level than other secondary reinforcers such as praise, approval, and feedback