Chemistry Topic 2+3
Hydrogen Emission Spectrum
Color lines indicate the wavelengths of light that are released
any three of the following possible answers: size of the positive) charge (on the ion); mass (of the ion); strength of the magnetic field; velocity/speed (of the ions) strength of the electric field
State three factors that affect the degree of deflection of ions in a mass spectrometer.
M+(g)→M2+(g)+e−M+(g)→M2+(g)+e−
State what is meant by the term second ionization energy.
Ionic Radius Trend
decreases across a period and increases down a group
electronegativity trend
decreases from top to bottom in a group; increases from left to right in a period
Alfbau Principle
electrons fill atomic orbitals of lowest energy first.
absorption line spectrum
measures the radiation absorbed when electrons absorb energy to move to a higher energy state
Electronegativity
the ability of an atom to pull an electron towards itself
continuous spectrum
the emission of a continuous range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation
periodicity
the repeating pattern of physical or chemical properties
(a) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 (b) possible positive ions: K+ / Ca2+ / Sc3+ /Ti4+ possible negative ions: Cl- / S2- / P3-
(a) State the full electron configuration for argon. (1) (b) Give the formulas of two oppositely charged ions which have the same electron configuration as argon.
a) Draw a dumbbell-shaped orbital along the z-axis; make sure that you label the axes. b) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 / five unpaired electrons c) look online
(a) Using the framework of the x, y and z coordinates, draw the shape of the pz atomic orbital. (1) (b) State the electron configuration of Fe3+ ion. How many unpaired electrons are there in this ion? (2) (c) The element selenium (Z = 34) has electrons in the 4s, 3d and 4p orbitals. Draw an electron in box diagram to represent these electrons. (1)
Hund's Rule
electrons occupy orbitals of the same energy in a way that makes the number of electrons with the same spin direction as large as possible
Ionisation
formation of a positive ion, removable of an electron
d) first ionisation energy (WHY: Ionisation refers to the removal of electrons from an atom. It is the first ionisation energy as the electron is being removed from a neutral atom.)
he following equation represents which process? M → M+ + e- a) second ionisation energy b) second electron affinity c) first electron affinity d) first ionisation energy
yes (WHY: Chlorine is more reactive than bromine, so chlorine will displace bromide ions from solution. Fluorine is the strongest oxidising agent of all; i.e. it is the most effective at gaining electrons and becoming the negative ion. The oxidising power decreases down the group.)
he halogens are all oxidising agents and displacement (replacement) reactions can take place between them. Would the following reaction occur? Answer yes or no. 2NaBr (aq) + Cl2 (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + Br2 (aq)
atomic radius trend
increases down a group, decreases across a period
atomic radius
one-half the distance between the nuclei of identical atoms that are bonded together
emission line spectrum
produced when electrons emit energy and transition from higher to lower energy levels.
This has to do with the sub-energy levels. The points at the top are half-full meaning they are more stable, so more energy is needed to get rid of an electron. First ionisation energies generally increase across a period and decrease down a group in the periodic table (Figure 1). The increase in ionisation energy across a period is due to the increase in nuclear charge and decrease in atomic radii. This results in an increased attraction between the nucleus and the valence electrons. The decrease in ionisation energy down a group is due to the increase in atomic radius. The increased distance results in a weaker attraction between the nucleus and the valence electrons of an atom.
Explain this graph, why are the lines up and down
c) Electrons and protons
An atom of any element contains equal numbers of which of the following sub-atomic particles: a) Electrons, neutrons and protons b) Electrons and neutrons c) Electrons and protons d) Neutrons and protons
Pauli Exclusion Principle
An atomic orbital may describe at most two electrons, each with opposite spin direction
d) It is found in period 2 in the p-block of the periodic table.
An element has the electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p5. Which of the following is correct about this element? a) It is found in period 1 in the p-block of the periodic table. b) It is found in period 2 in the s-block of the periodic table. c) It is found in period 2 in the d-block of the periodic table. d) It is found in period 2 in the p-block of the periodic table.
b) Cu+
An ion has the electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10. Which of the following ions could it be? a) Ni2+ b) Cu+ c) Cu2+ d) Co3+
isotope
Atoms of the same element with different mass numbers as they contain different numbers of neutrons in their nucleus.
d) It has a smaller atomic radius than strontium (WHY: the atomic radius of barium is larger than that of strontium as it has an additional occupied main energy level which gives it a larger atomic radius, not smaller.)
Barium is an element in group 2 of the periodic table. Identify which of the following statements about barium is incorrect. a) It has six occupied main energy levels b) It has a lower first ionisation energy than magnesium c) It has two electrons in its valence shell d) It has a smaller atomic radius than strontium
Percentage abundance of bromine-81 = 45% Percentage abundance of bromine-79 = 55%
Bromine exists as two isotopes: bromine-79 and bromine-81. The relative atomic mass ofbromine is 79.90. Use this information to calculate the percentage abundance of the two isotopes.
c) K (WHY: Ionisation energies decrease down a group and generally increase across a period. Of these elements, K has the largest atomic radius and the lowest first ionisation energy value.)
Deduce which of the following elements has the lowest first ionisation energy value. a) C b) Mg c) K d) He
a) First ionisation energy and electronegativity (WHY: First ionisation energy and electronegativity increase across a period with increasing nuclear charge and decreasing atomic radius.)
Deduce which of the following increases across a period (from left to right) in the periodic table. a) First ionisation energy and electronegativity b) Electronegativity and ionic radius c) Atomic number and atomic radius d) First ionisation energy and atomic radius
c) Mg2+ (WHY: On first inspection it might seem that fluoride, F-, is the correct answer, because it is furthest to the right in period 2. But the question refers to ions: the electron configurations of all four of these ions are identical, 1s2 2s2 2p6. The atomic numbers (Z) are 8, 9,11 and 12, respectively. Magnesium has the highest atomic number (Z = 12), therefore, the valence electrons 'feel' the strongest attraction from the nucleus, so it has the smallest ionic radius. The data supports this: the ionic radii of the ions are: 190, 181, 98, 65 pm for O2-, F-, Na+and Mg2+, respectively.)
Deduce which of the following ions has the smallest ionic radius. a) F- b) Na+ c) Mg2+ d) O2-
a) Iodide ions are displaced to produce aqueous iodine molecules (WHY: chlorine displaces the iodide ions from solution according to the following equation: Cl2 (aq) + 2I− (aq) → 2Cl− (aq) + I2 (aq). Chlorine is more reactive than iodine (it is a more powerful oxidising agent than iodine), therefore, it can displace iodide ions in solution.)
Deduce which of the following occurs when chlorine water is added to an aqueous solution of potassium iodide (KI). a) Iodide ions are displaced to produce aqueous iodine molecules b) Chloride ions are displaced to produce chlorine gas c) No reaction occurs because chlorine and iodine are equally reactive d) No reaction occurs because chlorine is less reactive than iodine
d) Al and O (WHY: Oxygen is the most electronegative element (apart from fluorine) and aluminium is a metal with a lower electronegativity value. This is the only combination involving a metal and a non-metal and so they have the greatest difference in electronegativity.)
Deduce which of the following pairs of elements have the greatest difference in electronegativity. a) Cl and F b) O and F c) C and O d) Al and O
c) II and III (WHY: As the number of occupied energy levels does not increase across a period, there is little change in electron shielding. Ionisation energies increase due to increasing nuclear charge across the period. The atomic radius decreases across the period as the electrons are held more tightly due to the increasing nuclear charge.)
Deduce which of the following periodic trends increases across a period in the periodic table (from left to right). I. Electron shielding II. Ionisation energy III. Nuclear charge IV. Atomic radius a) I and II only b) II, III and IV c) II and III d) I, II and IV
Electronegativity is the attraction an atom has for the bonding pair of electrons in a covalent bond. Fluorine is a smaller atom than chlorine and so the bonding pairs of any covalent bond it is taking part in are closer to the nucleus and experience a greater attractive force. There is also less shielding of the bonding electrons by electrons in inner energy levels in the case of fluorine.
Explain what is meant by the term electronegativity and explain why the electronegativity of fluorine is greater than that of chlorine.
For the free atom the 4s sub-energy level is lower than the 3d sub-energy level and so is filled first. Once an ion is formed the positive nucleus attracts the electron energy levels more strongly and the 3d sub-level becomes lower in energy than the 4s sub-level so the 4s electron is removed leaving a full 3d sub-energy level.
Explain why a potassium atom contains an electron in a 4s orbital with no electrons in a 3d orbital whereas a copper(I) ion, Cu+ has the electronic configuration [Ar]3d10 with no electrons in the 4s orbital.
The three p orbitals are of equal energy and are orthogonal to each other. The px orbital lies along the x-axis, py lies along the y-axis and pz lies along the z-axis.
Explain why it is important to label the x,y and z axes when drawing out the shape of a p orbital.
Chromium and Copper have one less 4s and gain one for 3d. This is 3d is very unstable when it is no full or half-full. Since Chromium would normally have 4 electrons in 3d, it means it is one away from being half-full, so it takes an electron from 4s to become half-full and therefore more stable.
Explain why the electron configurations of Cr and Cu are different from what you would predict.
The magnesium atom has a greater nuclear charge as it has an extra proton compared to the sodium atom. Consequently, the atomic radius is smaller as there is a stronger attraction for the electrons by the nucleus.
Explain why the first ionization energy of magnesium is greater than that of sodium
The bromine atom has one more proton in its nucleus than a selenium atom. This means that the outer, valence electrons, which are in the same energy level in both atoms, are attracted more strongly in the bromine atom. When the negative ions are formed the Br atom gains one electron, but the Se atom gains two. The repulsion between these added electrons increases the size of the ion compared to the atom and this effect is greatest in the case of Se.
Explain why the ionic radius of bromine is less than that of selenium.
Most noble gases have full valence shells. Because of their full valence electron shell, the noble gases are extremely stable and do not readily lose or gain electrons.
Explain why the noble gases could be at zero on this graph
i. A brown solution is formed as iodine is displaced from the salt. Cl2 + 2KI → I2 + 2KCl ii. A cream precipitate of silver bromide is formed. Ag+ + Br− → AgBr
For each of the following reactions in aqueous solution, state one observation that would be made, and deduce the equation. i. The reaction between chlorine and potassium iodide. ii. The reaction between silver ions and bromide ions.
The sample to be analysed is first vaporised to form a gas. Next, it is bombarded by high-energy electrons, producing positive ions, which are then accelerated in an electric field. Note that a mass spectrometer produces ions with a one positive (1+) charge. The positive ions are deflected in a magnetic field depending on their mass to charge ratio (m/z or m/e). Ions with a higher mass to charge ratio are deflected less in the magnetic field than ions with a lower mass to charge ratio. Finally, the positive ions reach the detector, where they produce a mass spectrum. Note
How does the mass spectrometer works?
a) I+ < I < I− (WHY: the removal of an electron from an iodine atom to form I+ results in an increase in the attraction between the nucleus and the valence electrons and the radius decreases. The addition of an electron to form I− increases the electron-electron repulsions and decreases the attraction between the nucleus and the valence electrons and the radius increases. Iodine (I) has equal number of protons and electrons.)
Deduce which of the following series represents the correct size order (from smallest to largest atomic/ionic radius) for the various iodine species I, I− and I+. a) I+ < I < I− b) I− < I < I+ c) I < I+ < I− d) I < I− < I+
b) Al3+ (WHY: Na has the electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 (with 11 protons), Na+ has the electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 (with 11 protons), Mg2+ has the electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6(with 12 protons) and Al3+ has the electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 (with 13 protons). The electrons in the aluminium ion experience a stronger attraction from the nucleus as there are 13 protons 'pulling' on 10 electrons. This results in a stronger attraction between the nucleus and the valence electrons and a smaller ionic radius.)
Deduce which of the following species has the smallest radius. a) Na+ b) Al3+ c) Na d) Mg2+
The first ionization energy of an atom is the energy required to remove one mole of outer electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms to form gaseous singly-charged positive ions.
Define the term first ionization energy
ionic radius
Distance from the center of an ion's nucleus to its outermost electron
b) Two 4s orbital electrons and one 3d orbital electron
Electrons are lost when an iron atom forms the Fe3+ ion. Which combination of electrons is lost? a) Three 4s orbital electrons b) Two 4s orbital electrons and one 3d orbital electron c) One 4s orbital electron and two 3d orbital electrons d) Three 3d orbital electrons
It increases because the electronegativity increases from left to right each period. This is because there are more electrons which means it has a stronger pull.
Explain this graph
dumbbell shape
what shape is a p atomic orbital
spherical
what shape is a s atomic orbital
b) I and II only (WHY: most non-metals have low melting and boiling points because they are simple molecular substances, so III is incorrect. The other two statements are generally correct; non-metal elements are poor conductors of heat and electricity and form negative ions by gaining electrons to achieve a full outer shell.)
Identify which of the following properties is/are typical of the non-metal elements in period 3 of the periodic table. I. They are poor conductors of both heat and electricity II. They form negative ions by gaining one or more electrons III. They have high melting points and boiling points a) II and III only b) I and II only c) I and III only d) I, II and III
20.18
In a sample of neon, 90.9% is the isotope 20Ne (neon-20). The other isotopes detected are 21Ne (0.3%) and 22Ne (8.8%). Calculate the relative atomic mass of neon to two decimal places.
These trends happens because alkali metals want to lose one more electron so they to lose it, while halogens want to gain one more electron they form negative ions, so they can gain one more electron.
In part 1 you have observed that alkali metals have a tendency to form positive ions with charge 1. In part 2 you have seen that halogens have a tendency to form negative ions with charge 1. How can you explain these trends?
d) Atomic number
In the modern periodic table the elements are arranged in increasing order of which important feature of their atoms? a) Isotopic mass b) Relative atomic mass c) Nucleon number d) Atomic number
d) O < F < Ne
In which of the following series of elements are the atoms arranged in order of increasing first ionisation energy? a) Be < Mg < Ca b) Be < B < C c) Ne < O < F d) O < F < Ne
2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g) The lithium moves around the surface of the water and there is a fizzing as a colourless gas is given off. The metal eventually disappears.
Lithium reacts with water. Write an equation for the reaction and state two observations that could be made during the reaction
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3
State the electron configuration of a vanadium atom (Z = 23) and the vanadium(II) ion (V2+).
1. (N) 1s22s22p3 2. (Br) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5 3. 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d5 4. (Fe3+) 1s22s22p63s23p63d5 5. (Cr) 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d5 6. (Ge2+) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d10
State the full electron configuration of: 1. a free nitrogen atom 2. an uncombined bromine atom 3. [Ar]4s23d5 4. Fe3+ 5. an uncombined chromium atom 6. Ge2+
Neon
State the name of the element in period 2 that has the highest effective nuclear charge. Answer with thename of the element (not the symbol).
d) 29
The M2+ ion of a metal in the first row of the d-block of elements has an electron configuration of [Ar]3d9. What is the atomic number (Z) of this metal? a) 27 b) 28 c) 30 d) 29
The sodium lost an electron, so they were able to fill up their outer shell. This process is called ionisation. 2 Na(s) + 2 H2O (l) à 2 Na+ (aq) + 2 OH- (aq) + H2 (g) Going down the group of the alkali metals the reaction to water becomes more vigorous. This is due to a change in attraction of the electron in the outer energy level (or shell) to the nucleus.
The equation of the reaction that just took place is: 2 Na(s) + 2 H2O (l) à 2 Na+ (aq) + 2 OH- (aq) + H2 (g). Sodium is part of the group of elements that are called the alkali metals (group 1). These metals all react with water. What happened to sodium here? Illustrate your answer with an equation. What is this process called?
Let percentage of 79Br be a = 79.91 2a = 8100-7991 = 109 so a = 54.50 and (100 - a) = 45.50 79Br = 54.50% and 81Br = 45.50%
The relative atomic mass of bromine is 79.91. Determine the relative percentage abundance of its two isotopes 79Br and 81Br to two decimal places.
dipersion
The separation of the white light into its component colours
b) Electronegativity values increase from left to right across a period and decrease down a group.
Which of the following statements best describes the trends in the electronegativity of the elements in the periodic table? a) Electronegativity values increase from left to right across a period and increase down a group. b) Electronegativity values increase from left to right across a period and decrease down a group. c) Electronegativity values decrease from left to right across a period and decrease down a group. d) Electronegativity values decrease from left to right across a period and increase down a group.
a) A continuous emission spectrum contains a spread of all the colours from red through to violet. A line spectrum has only distinct coloured lines against a black background. b) Sketch the four lines, be sure to have them converging towards the high frequency end of the spectrum. See Figure 6 in section "2.2.1 Emission spectra". You could label the colours red, blue, indigo, violet. Make sure you indicate the direction in which frequency, or wavelength, is increasing. c) The presence of discrete lines in an emission spectrum means that there are only particular energy levels where electrons can exist, otherwise the spectrum would be a smear of light. A line represents an electron falling from a higher to a lower energy level giving out a photon of light.
(a) Evidence showing the existence of energy levels in atoms is provided by line spectra. State how a line spectrum differs from a continuous spectrum. (1) (b) Sketch the visible line spectrum of hydrogen showing its four major lines. (2) (c) Explain how the formation of lines indicates the presence of energy levels. (2)
melting point trend
1. decreases down group 1 2. increase down 17 3. increase across a period and reach a maximum at group 14
(i) (a) 125I has 72 neutrons and 131I has 78 neutrons. (b) They will have slightly different physical properties e.g. mass, density and boiling point. (They also have different half-lives and 125 I is a gamma emitter and 131I is a gamma and beta emitter). (c) Their normal chemical properties are identical but their chemical properties due to their nuclear emissions are different. (ii) Nuclear contamination from the power plants contained radioactive iodine which could be absorbed into the thyroid of humans living nearby. Giving them normal iodine reduces the probability of the radioactive iodine being absorbed.
Two isotopes used in medicine are 125I and 131I. The atomic number of iodine is 53. i. State how they would differ in: a. the number of neutrons contained in the nucleus of each isotope. b. their physical properties c. their chemical properties ii. Suggest why people living near the nuclear power plant in Fukushima, which was damaged in the earthquake that hit Japan in March 2011, were given iodine tablets.
Chromium: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5 Copper: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10
What are the two exceptions to Aufbau principle?
When an alkali metal comes in contact with a halogen the reaction is very rigorous and it produces a salt.
What do you expect will happen when an akali metal comes into contact with a halogen?
charge of the nucleus, shielding (attraction of an outer electron to the nucleus is blocked by other electrons)
What factors effect the ionization energy?
what type of element it forms
What is melting point influenced by?
a) A period
What is the name given to a horizontal row of elements in the periodic table? a) A period b) A group c) A cluster d) A block
d) s < p < d < f
What is the order of increasing energy of the sub-levels within the fourth main energy level (n = 4) of an atom? a) f < d < p < s b) p < s < f < d c) d < s < f < p d) s < p < d < f
a) 4 (WHY: There are two sub-levels in the n=2 energy level, the 2s and the 2p. Together they make a total of 4 atomic orbitals (one 2s and three 2p atomic orbitals)
What is the total number of atomic orbitals in the n = 2 energy level of an atom? a) 4 b) 2 c) 5 d) 3
b) the number of protons and the number of electrons
What two aspects of atomic structure are the same for atoms of phosphorus-26 and phosphorus-27? a) the number of neutrons and the number of electrons b) the number of protons and the number of electrons c) the atomic number and the mass number d) the number of neutrons and the number of protons
When white light passes through a prism
When is a continuous spectrum produced?
d) Tc
Which element is in the d-block of the periodic table? a) As b) Po c) Ba d) Tc
c) Sr2+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+
Which is the correct order for the ionic radii of the following group 1 and group 2 ions? a) Ca2+ > Mg2+ > Sr2+ b) Rb+ > Li+ > Cs+ c) Sr2+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ d) Li+ > Cs+ > Na+
d) 39 19K+
Which isotope has the following composition of subatomic particles: 19 protons, 20 neutrons, and 18 electrons? a) 39 19K b) 40 18Ar c) 40 20Ca2+ d) 39 19K+
d) Decreasing atomic radius and increasing nuclear charge results in a stronger attraction between the nucleus and the valence electrons.
Which of the following correctly explains the decrease in metallic character from left to right across a period in the periodic table? a) Decreasing atomic radius and increasing nuclear charge results in a weaker attraction between the nucleus and the valence electrons. b) Increasing atomic radius and decreasing nuclear charge results in a stronger attraction between the nucleus and the valence electrons. c) Increasing atomic radius and increasing nuclear charge results in a stronger attraction between the nucleus and the valence electrons. d) Decreasing atomic radius and increasing nuclear charge results in a stronger attraction between the nucleus and the valence electrons.
d) II only
Which of the following is correct about the trend in ionisation energy going down the alkali metals? I. Potassium has a higher ionisation energy than sodium. II. Lithium has the highest ionisation energy of all the alkali metals. III. The ionisation energy increases with increasing atomic radius. a) I, II and III b) II and III only c) I and III only d) II only
a) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2
Which of the following is the correct electron configuration for a titanium atom (Z = 22)? a) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2 b) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d4 c) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 4p2 d) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4p2
d) 16O+ (WHY: the ion in D has the lowest mass to charge ratio and so will be deflected the most, followed by #1. Ions with the highest mass to charge ratio are deflected the least as they have the most momentum to resist the influence of the magnetic field. Ions with the lowest mass to charge ratio are deflected the most.)
Which of the following positive ions would undergo the greatest deflection in a mass spectrometer? a) 17O+ b) (16O18O)+ c) 18O+ d) 16O+
b) I and III only
Which of the following properties of period 3 elements increase across the period from sodium (Na) to argon (Ar)? I. Electronegativity II. Atomic radius III. First ionisation energy a) I, II and III b) I and III only c) II and III only d) I and II only
c) I and II only
Which of the following properties of the halogens increases down group 17 from F to I? I. Atomic radius II. Melting point III. Electronegativity a) I only b) II and III only c) I and II only d) I, II and III
b) A set of four lines that converge at high frequency (WHY: In the visible emission line spectrum of hydrogen, there are four lines that converge at high frequency, or high energy. The relationship between energy, frequency and wavelength is: High energy = high frequency = short wavelength The lines are produced as the electrons transition from higher to lower energy levels within the atom. When this happens, they release energy that corresponds to the frequency or wavelength of visible light.)
Which of the following statements best describes the visible emission line spectrum of hydrogen? a) A set of four lines that converge at long wavelength b) A set of four lines that converge at high frequency c) A set of four lines that converge at low energy d) A set of four lines that are randomly spaced
a) p orbitals are dumbbell-shaped
Which of the following statements is correct regarding the shape and orientation of s and p atomic orbitals? a) p orbitals are dumbbell-shaped. b) s orbitals are dumbbell-shaped. c) p orbitals have two lobes arranged at right angles to each other d) p orbitals are spherical.
d) Be (WHY: Beryllium is in group 2 and period 2, which corresponds to the electron configuration 1s22s2. It has two outer (valence) electrons in its second main energy level and two occupied main energy levels, therefore, it is in group 2 and period 2.)
Which one of the following elements has the same group number and period number? a) Si b) Mg c) He d) Be
c) Electrons emit energy as they transition from higher to lower energy levels. (WHY: emission line spectra are produced by electron transitions from higher energy levels to lower energy levels. These electron transitions release energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. Absorption line spectra are produced when electrons absorb energy and transition to higher energy levels. Like emission spectra, the energy is absorbed in the form of electromagnetic radiation.)
Which statement regarding the electron transitions that result in the formation of an emission line spectrum is correct? a) Electrons absorb energy as they transition from higher to lower energy levels. b) Electrons absorb energy as they transition from lower to higher energy levels. c) Electrons emit energy as they transition from higher to lower energy levels. d) Electrons emit energy as they transition from lower to higher energy levels.
When an element in period 1 loses a whole energy steel when it turns into an ion making its radius much smaller.
Why does period 1 have the biggest between their atomic and ionic radius?
Al(g) → Al+(g) + e−
Write an equation, including state symbols, for the process occurring when measuring the first ionization energy of aluminium
