Chinese Civ Final

"Han people" (as defined by the Mongol Yuan court)

"Han" was label Mongols gave to steppe-ruled northerners. While southern Chinese they simply called "Southerners." Now, "Han" refers to racial identity constructed by PRC.

Macartney embassy

(1793) This is also known as the Macartney mission. It was the first British diplomatic envoy to China. Macartney sought an audience with the Qianlong emperor in order to request that trade restrictions be eased. The Qianlong Emperor refused. An interesting issue that occurred is known as the "kowtow issue". Guests of the emperor were expected to show their submission by getting down on their knees and bowing until their head touched the floor; Macartney refused to do so. (Trade with Britain was not important to the Chinese because the British had little that they wanted.)

New Policies

1069. Hired Service Law: replaced corvee conscription with service exemption tax; laborers hired by market prices. Green Sprouts Laws: loaned seed grain to farmers with interest.. Equitable Transport Policy: state bought-sold goods for profit. All premised on money economy (paper money--first printed in 1020s, cash coins).Created huge surplus for state. Reshaped social relations (cf., capitalism) Resulted in industrialisation: using labor input instead of fossil-fuel input. Hydraulic engineering and machine manufactory, through bio-power: human populations and labor. Abundant bio-power means no need for fossil-fuel inputs. Northern Song ironworks production in 1078: 125,000 tons; compared to 76,000 tons by England in 1788. 3.1 pounds per person (only matched by Europe after 1700). Blast furnaces used coke (distilled coal) in place of wood fuel; coke use only began in Europe in early 1700s. Other metal production: steel, copper, silver, gold;machinery in iron, porcelain, silk manufactories.

Wang Anshi

1069. Wang Anshi was a Chinese economist, statesman, chancellor and poet of the Song Dynasty who attempted major and controversial socioeconomic reforms known as the New Policies. State control of commerce, industry, and agriculture. State finance and trade, social order and defense, and education and improving governance.

Emperor Huizong

11th to 12th c. Emperor Huizong of Song (7 June 1082 - 4 June 1135), personal name Zhao Ji, was the eighth emperor of the Song Dynasty in China. Avid painter, calligrapher: painted "Auspicious Cranes", and "Finches and Bamboo".

Li Qingzhao

11th-12th c. Pseudonym Yi'an Jushi , was a Song dynasty Chinese writer and poet.She is considered the greatest woman poet in Chinese history. Wrote "Records on Metal Stone". (g)

Zhu Xi

12th c song. Revised Chinese curriculum for lixue. Wrote new guides for rituals, for his times, and new commentaries to old Classicsm which superseded prior commentaries; new commentaries = new interpretations = rewriting of text. Incorporated elements of Buddhism: A student asked, "How can a person develop his sincerity and reverence and get rid of his desires?" Zhu Xi responded,"...Desires should be blocked." A student asked, "What should one do if before a parent died, heor she left instructions to have Buddhists perform theservices?"Zhu Xi responded, "This is a difficult question."The student persisted, "So should he employ them or not?"ZhuXi said, "There are some things the heart of a child cannot bear todo. This issue requires careful consideration."

The Great Canon of Yongle (also called, "Great Encyclopedia")

1408 : Massive text database . 2,196 scholars edited for 4 years, completed in 1408. 7,000-8,000 works from Spring-Autumn to Ming:on every known subject. 11,095 volumes—largest compendium ever compiled. est. 370 million words (all 25 imperial histories are 40 mil words). So massive that the treasury could not afford to print it. In 1597, a hand-written manuscript copy was made. In 1860, British-French forces invaded and looted Beijing, tookconsiderable portion as "souvenirs." In 1900, the occupation of Beijing by eight Western nations lootedseveral hundred volumes, and the rest burned/destroyed. Now, less than 400 volumes survive, 3.5% of original. In early 1920, a Chinese scholar found a volume in second-handshop in London (sold long ago by soldier as 'worthless souvenir. This volume contained Yuan dramas only transmitted in that volume. If this massive database survived, much of Chinese history would bere-conceived; and Chinese literature-philosphy wholly re-written. A complete set is thought to be buried with Yongle (unexcavated, due to fears of disintegration).

Zhu Yuanzhang

14th century. Hongwu (Vast Valour) Emperor, founder of the Ming Dynasty. Noted for his conservative. Born a peasant farmer, and retained agrarian ideal for society. Promoted "Han" identity (not Tang-style multi-culturalism); "Han" identity and gender construction. Wary of market-driven commerce (e.g., Wang Anshi policies); conservative class roles: everyone must inherit family occupation. Despotic methods: mass purges, mass arrests, shadow security forces, group surveillance, to enforce his vision of society. Became reference point for autocratic control & repression.

Zheng He

15th century. Admiral, embarked upon voyage, to Indian Ocean, East Africa.a century before trips of Columbus, de Gama. Largest ships exceeded 200 ft—largest in world: fleet had 200+ ships. Extended trade networks and trading ports.Furthered tribute system to Ming. Voyages suspended in 1424 when Emperor Yongle died. Last voyage in 1433, never resumed. Water-shed moment marking shift away from sea towards the steppe.

Macao (10:312)

16th century. In response to Ming policy of closed trade, the Portuguese established a trading post in Macao, with the cooperation of Macao officials, not far from Guangzhou (a major trade centre) in 1557. 20 years later, the Ming themselves allowed the Portuguese to build a permanent trading post, but also built a wall as a boundary against the barbarian "Portuguese".

Li Zhi

16th to 17th c. A legendary philosopher/writer of late Ming, Li Zhi was a leading revolutionary in the movement towards informal Ming prose and resisted the Neo-Confucian tendencies of the period. His radical notions regarding the 'child mind' and preference for introspective learning made him a pariah in the eyes of archaists.

Wu Sangui

17th C. 1644. One of the three main players in the Ming-Qing transition, alongside Li Zicheng, and Dorgon, Nurhaci's successor. Wu Sangui was a Ming commander at Shanhai pass and Wu Sangui was a defecting Ming general who combined forces with the Manchus (Qing) to defeat Li Zicheng at Shanhai pass.

Li Zicheng (Tanner, 1:36-7)

17th C. Led peasant revolt against Ming; took Beijing. Overthrew Ming and ruled briefly before his death.

Kangxi

17th C. The Kangxi Emperor (4 May 1654 - 20 December 1722) was the fourth emperor of the Qing dynasty. He was concerned about the Zunghar Mongols in the east led by Galdan the Zunghar Mongol leader who had allied himself with the Tibetan Dalai Lama. Kangxi then allied himself with the Russians in the North and east so he could pursue the Zunghar and Galdan. Galdan died and Kangxi claimed victory. Also defeated Wu Sangui in the south and suppressed his revolt of the three fuedatories. The Kangxi Emperor's reign brought about long-term stability and relative wealth after years of war and chaos. He initiated the period known as the "Prosperous Era of Kangxi and Qianlong" or "High Qing", which lasted for several generations after his death. His court also accomplished such literary feats as the compilation of the Kangxi Dictionary. (Wikipedia'd lol; tbc?)

Century of Humiliation

1839-1942. The Century of Humiliation is a reference to the near-century-long humiliation of the Chinese at the hands of foreigners. It begins with the Qing's defeat in the first Opium War, Over the following century, China repeated lost battles and, consequently, sovereignty to Europeans, the Americans, and the Japanese.

Treaty of Nanjing

1842. Indemnity of 21 million silver dollars to England. "Opening" of treaty ports (later, concessions). Bypassed hongs; low tariff. 1843: extraterritoriality.

Taiping Rebellion

1850 to 1864. Devastated the fertile and economically important southland. Most crippling factor in fall of Qing. Led by Hong Xiuquan: Hakka ("stranger"): marginalized group, with strong role for females; did not bind feet. Xiuqaun failed exam 4 times in Guangzhou. Converted by Protestant missionary writings. Revelation: he is second son of God, brother of Jesus. Advocated for the poselityzed egalitarian redistribution of land, and mobilized women.

Treaty of Shimonoseki

1895. cedes Taiwan to Japanese rule, establishes areas of influence for Japan in Manchuria etc.; and granted Japan the right to establish factories in China following China's defeat in the Sino-Japanese War

Boxer Movement

1899-1900. Chinese rebels under the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists discontented foreign involvement in China organized the destruction of Western property and killing for foreigners primarily in Beijing in 1900, Chinese government does not condemn the uprising and Empress Dowager Cixi declares war on the eight foreign nations. The boxer war is then squashed by the Eight-Nation Alliance.

Lin Zexu (2:76)

18th and 19th century. Widespread opium addiction, scarcity of silver (esp. due to outflows for opium):more burden on taxpayers →tax evasion →less govt. Revenue. Opium trade not taxable because illegal. After debates at court, the Daoguang Emperor appoints Lin Zexu (1785-1850) to crackdown on opium trade. May 1838: Lin Zexu arrests opium users, destroys opium shipments, opium pipes. March 1839: Lin seals off Guangzhou's factories; Britishmerchants agree to surrender opium, compensated by Crown. (tbc? Didn't refer to Open Empire).

Whampoa Military Academy

1924; Soviet officers taught different military subjects in the Academy using their broad experience gained during the Russian Civil War. Students included Chiang Kai-Shek and Wang Jingwei.

Nanjing Decade

1927-1937.With the KMT holding power with Nanjing as capital in 1927, China enjoyed unity in comparison to the warlord period; but was constantly pursuing communists. Economic growth in urban sectors due to support from Nazi party (China trades materials such as pig iron for war machines).

Yan'an Rectification Movement

1941-1944. Nationalist blockade; 1941 New Fourth Army Incident: influx of new communists—various ideologies, interpretations of communism's teachings; reading groups, criticism. All these were part of Mao's struggle to create a uniform vision of Chinese communism, and to consolidate his own power. Mao mobilised people to transform themselves. Unlike the KMT, he did not (yet) resort to killing differences. Through the Rectification Movement, he sought to answer: how do I create an ideology immune to liberalism, and that can generate its own internal criticism?

(Taiwan) February 28th Incident and White Terror

1947 movement of Taiwanese in 2.28 against KMT led govt. Led to the beginning of the white terror, which is a purge of taiwanese individuals during 1947.

Northern Expedition

:1926-1928. A Kuomintang (KMT) military campaign, led by Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, from 1926-28. Its main objective was to unify China under its own control by ending the rule of the Beiyang government as well as the local warlords. It led to the end of the Warlord Era, the reunification of China in 1928 and the establishment of the Nanjing government. Began from Guangzhou.

Xi Xia (Western Xia)

A Tangut people, who spoke a Tangut language (Tibeto-Burman language family). Based in Ordos. During the Song in the northish western regions. Tangut people; Tangut language (Tibeto-Burman language family) • based in Ordos • Xi Xia ruler's letter to Song

Lady Wenji (lecture 10B)

A character in a Han dynasty story: a lady who is captured by the Xiognu=Jurchen. Longs for home: Hill and stream routes are faraway—who remembers them? Where at the sky's edge is my home country?

Kang Youwei (2:90-103)

A mentor of Liang Qichao who helped develop the 100 Day Reform program in 1898, Kang Youwei sought to modernize China while maintaining the imperial government. By the early 21st century, he was retrospectively viewed as outdated and reactionary. Tried to lead a coup against Empress Dowager Cixi but failed. Tried to advocate for western learning and established colleges. Attempted to do away with antiquated civil service exam.

Liang Qichao

A reformer who, alongside mentor Kang Youwei, developed the 100-day Reform Program in 1898. Advocated for empowering women along with Kang and establisehd an all girl school. Wanted women to be literate to strengthen the nation and be on equal terms with men. Believed that the chinese were losing because they couldn't evolve with the western world.

Khitai/Khitan

A steppe people who ruled both the Khitan tribes and the Chinese farmer in the north. In competition with the Song. In 1005, Peace Treaty of Chanyuan: clear boundaries between the Song and the Khitan, sixteen prefectures kept by the Khitan (in the Yanjing=Beijing area), peace through indemnity (100k silver, 200k bolts annually--silver traded for Chinese goods, so wealth circled back). At the heigh in 11th C the Liao stretched from Manchuria to Mongolia and Xinjiang. Influenced by Chinese culture and chinese trade flowed through Liao lands. Patrons and practitioners of Buddhism. They controlled the sixteen prefectures which gave them a large Chinese population. the word "Cathay" (alternate name for China in the West), derives from "Khitai" ( a variation of "Khitan") • ruled both pastoral Khitan tribes and Chinese farmers in north. • Peace Treaty of Chanyuan (1005): • clear boundaries between Khitan Liao and Chinese Song. • Sixteen Prefectures (Yanjing=Beijing area) kept by Liao. • peace for indemnity (relatively small economic payment): Song sent to Liao 100K silver, 200K silk bolts, annually. • silver traded for Chinese goods, so silver cycled back.

equal-field system

A taxation system adopted from Northern Dynasties. Land redistributed to individual households. Households paid tax directly to government (instead of to local powers). Tax based on household size rather than land size. Noble and imperial family remained exempt, and the frontier lands were often untaxed due to difficulty in registration. problems: • exempt from taxes: imperial and noble families, officials (e.g., Du Fu), Buddhist & Daoist monastery-estates (which could be huge). • much land still kept in, or reverted to, private ownership. • frontier lands were difficult to register, and therefore untaxed. • tax based on registered household size, so large estates were undertaxed. • 780, biannual tax: no longer based on household size, but on land size.

First Opium War

After Lin Zexu's destruction of opium factories, Charles Elliot, Chief Superintendent of British Trade in China in 1838, promised recompense for merchants by Crown, but the parliament had not agreed. Lobbies in England representing opium merchants, cotton barons, colonial interests. English refusal to submit to Chinese laws in China.

Empress Dowager Cixi

An empress dowager who effectively controlled the Chinese government in the late Qing. Originally a concubine to the Xianfeng emperor, Cixi rose to power when the emperor died and her son assumed power by removing regents loyal to the late emperor and consolidating her power via nepotism. Put emperor Guangxu under house arrest and seized power in late 1890s. Stopped the reforms of Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao.

Qingming scroll

An extensive Beijing scroll which details daily life (through painting) in Kaifeng--the industrialised capital of the Song Dynasty (tbc).

White Terror (1927)

April 1927: party purge of all communists in KMT, headed by Chiang Kai-shek. Slaughter; split between KMT power base in NJ and power base in Wuhan (WJW). MZD emerges as a leader: rural base strategy, appealing to peasantry.

Cultural Revolution

Began as campaign to transform China's intellectual and artistic culture. It's inception was foreshadowed in the longstanding differences between the leadership, on the extent of economic reforms, after the "great leap forward" campaign led to economic failure and widespread famine. Mao's visit to Russia where he saw Russia's economic reforms as signs of Russia moving away from the socialist cause convinced him that educated technocrats can corrupt the political revolution. By 1964 the expression "there must be a cultural revolution" frequently appeared in the press. Arts should now celebrate the heroes of the new society -- the workers the peasants and the soldiers. During the mid 1960s revolutionary content was greatly emphasized in schools as a process of thought reform. Mao Zedong's thoughts and writings were emphasized over anything else and hidden enemies of the revolution were constantly exposed through the media. Students were given unprecedented prominence in their role in the cultural revolution and were encouraged to uncover spies of the party and the revolution. Mao's sanctioning of the "Red Guards" led to the creation of a number of similar student groups that would take a lead in the revolution. They were to build a truly egalitarian new society while renouncing the four olds: old culture, old ideas, old customs and old habits. Soon the movement descended into violence and chaos but the party was reluctant to stop the students and instead gave them a free hand. Violence was justified using quotes from Mao's address we saw in class that stated that revolution was inherently violent. School authority figures, high ranking officials-notably Liu Shaoqi who led economic reforms-- and those deemed as bourgeoisies and capitalists were denounced, beaten, looted, imprisoned or tortured. By 1968 the revolution takes another turn when Mao begins to denounce the young revolutionaries and their violence as they became too much of a threat. Meanwhile the personality cult of Mao grows. By the 1969 9th party congress many of the original members had been purged and Mao becomes chairman and Lin Biao his official heir. The 1989 Tiananmen Protest marked an end of, perhaps, the most heated phase of the revolution. After 1976 when Mao dies his wife and four of her associates the notorious "gang of four," revolutionary elements of the party that were in the forefront of the cultural revolution, were arrested and blamed for pretty much everything that happened during the cultural revolution. The cultural revolution is still a moment of Chinese history that is being debated. The movement was a rare opportunity for people to vent their anger to those in power and the first time people could attack party authority (except mao). Yet human rights were ignored under the name of revolution as anyone who was not part of the revolution would be deemed as traitors and subject to violence. Many died in the ensuing years of the "dictatorship of the masses and state power."

Dunhuang Library Cave (Open Empire, 6:222-6)

Cave discovered in the 1800s. This was an im portant monastic center along the Silk Road, where travelers could stop before leaving China and beginning their long trip around the Taklamakan Desert. At the cave site were found"hundreds ofcave temples that had been dug out from the crumbly conglomerate face of a cliff, reinforced with pillars, and covered with mud and straw and then a plaster layer. Perhaps the monk-librarians at Dunhuang aimed to preserve Bud dhist teachings by placing the entire contents of their library-including all the scraps from lost texts-in a cave.

Chiang Kai-shek

Chang Kai-Chek was a military leader who became a leader in the First United Front. He eventually became the leader of the GMD (Guomindang) and led troops through the White Terror and the Northern Expedition. After depleting the communists, Chang attempted to reform China by implementing the New Life Movement. His unwillingness to confront the Japanese gained him much ire in the eyes of the Chinese. (He believed that the Communists were a greater threat.) He was eventually defeated by the communists and was forced to flee to Taiwan.

Xi'an Incident

Chiang Kai-Shek kidnapped by locals working with KMT to cooperate with CCP to form the Second United Front, in order to fight Japanese imperials (1937-41).

New Life Movement

Chiang Kai-shek was inspired by fascists, such as Mussolini. Emulating them, he enacted the New Life Movement, which was rooted in a new Confucianism, with strict rules for 'proper' citzenship e.g. staying to one side of the footpath.

Chinggis (Genghis) Khan

Chinggis (Genghis) Khan: The founder of the Yuan Empire. Reign: 1206-1227.

Treaty of Chanyuan (7:205; 216)

Clear boundaries between the Song and the Khitan, sixteen prefectures kept by the Khitan (in the Yanjing=Beijing area), peace through indemnity (100k silver, 200k bolts annually--silver traded for Chinese goods, so wealth circled back)

fragrant rosewood, zitan, huang huali

Color: black, purple-red, to brownish yellow. Rich in oils, resins: fragrant; resistant to termites and rot.Slow-growing, highly-dense hardwoods—denser than water. Slow-growing so finely grained. Enables intricate carving. enables delicate arms/legs/beams in furniture. Luxury wood sourced from tropics, esp. Southeast Asia.(part of China-SE Asia maritime trade network). Most species endangered from overlogging and no longer available. Somewhat analogous to colonial European harvesting of mahogany:tropical hardwood from central and south America.

Yan'an Forum on Art and Literature

Criticises intellectuals for writing about intellectuals, but not peasants. Key concept: gaizao: self-transformation, not just for intellectuals, but for social totality. Intellectuals have not undergone this gaizao, but the peasants have. Class for Mao is not just a sociological category. Class is a feeling, an attitude—which Mao seeks to change: "That is what is meant by change in feelings, a change from one class to another". From literary education camp book: "Before, we were beasts of burden. Now, we are the masters"—an exhortation of proletariat to change.

Tangut script

Far more complex than Chinese.

opium "hulk"

Floating opium warehouses. Smaller boats used to transfer opium to and fro.

recurve bow

Folded at limbs for more power, storing more energy. Also had a more compact frame. A composite bow: ibex horn, sinew,birch wood, birch-bark and willow.

The Four Books

For exams, Mongol and semu only tested on Four Books instead of Five Classics. (Four Books becomes codified for Ming-Qing.)

Nurhaci

From Aisin ("Gold") Gioro clan (steppe people). With military and diplomatic prowess, consolidates position among Jurchen and Mongols as khan. Nurhaci forms Eight Banner system to re-constitute social structure: shared identity with same clothing, same hairstyle, same banner cloth. Was permanent social group, unlike raiding & hunting parties. A banner included member's household: women, children, servants.Organized vertical command, replacing other social ties. Banner system incorporated Manchus, Mongols, Chinese. Called themselves the Latter Jin—as successor to the Jin dynasty.

Long March

From Jiangxi to Yan'an Shaanxi. October 1934 - October 1935. A military retreat undertaken by the Red Army of the Communist Party of China, the forerunner of the People's Liberation Army, to evade the pursuit of the KMT army. 80k in total, arrive with 8k in Yan'an due to warfare, disease, and abandonment.

An Lushan

General under Xuanzong during the Tang. Favored by Xuanzong and by his Consort Yang. He was given control of three of the ten armies under the Tang. Xuanzong gave him too much power. He rebelled in 755 against Xuanzong's rule, taking Luoyang. Rebellion: • frontier armies withdrawn to retake capital. • Xinjiang (Taklamakan) area ceded to Tibetan empire & Muslim Caliphate.• control of . • Xuanzong's successor, Suzong, allied with Uighurs from Mongolian steppe to retake Luoyang. price: let Uighurs loot Luoyang. • lands in northeast near Beijing (An Lushan original base) conceded to warlords who became autonomous regional 'governors.' • 763, rebellion quelled.

Ögedei (Tanner, 8:249-51)

Genghis' third son, chosen to succeed him as a politician. Styled himself as a 'khan'. He had territory in Zhungharia (Northern Xinjiang), but ruled in the Mongol capital of Karakorum as leader of all four khanates (1229-1241).

Qubilai (Kublai) Khan

Grandson of Genghis. Reign: 1260-1290.

Huang Taiji

Hong Taiji (28 November 1592 - 21 September 1643), sometimes written as Huang Taiji and also referred to as Abahai in Western literature, was an Emperor of the Qing dynasty. He was responsible for consolidating the empire that his father Nurhaci had founded and laid the groundwork for the conquest of the Ming dynasty, although he died before this was accomplished. He was also responsible for changing the name of his people from Jurchen to Manchu in 1635, as well as that of the dynasty from Later Jin to Qing in 1636. The Qing dynasty lasted until 1912. Because his father, Nurhaci, did not assume an imperial title while alive, Hong Taiji is sometimes considered to be the first Qing emperor, but because Nurhaci was posthumously awarded the imperial title, Hong Taiji is usually called the second emperor of the Qing. (Wikipedia'd, tbc: importance probably lies in changing Jurchen name into Manchu).

Rape of Nanjing

In 1937 the Japanese were advancing rapidly from the coast toward the Chinese capital of Nanjing. When they captured Nanjing on 13 December the Japanese officials allowed their men to carry out massive slaughter of surrendered Chinese soldiers and civilians. Over the course of several weeks the soldiers committed uncountable acts of rape, torture, looting and murder. In the following decades this was seen as a traumatic humiliation for the Chinese government.

Xinjiang begs (1:46)

In the Muslim areas of Xinjiang, the Qing ruled through begs: hereditary local leaders.

Sixteen Prefectures (Tanner, 7:203-6)

In the Yanjing=Beijing area granted to the Khitan through the Treaty of Chanyuan. (tbc)

Mukden Incident

Japanese military seizure of Mukden in Manchuria in 1931 as part of ongoing Japanese aggression in China under the pretext of "liberation." The foothold gave Japanese imperialists the necessarily infrastructure to thus establish Manchukuo

Jin dynasty

Jin dynasty: Founded by Jurchens in northern China through invasion. 1115-1234. (g)

Jingdezhen (10:321; 11:373)

Jingdezhen is a city in Jiangxi province (NE China), renowned internationally for its quality of porcelain, having achieved mastery of fine china by the Yuan Dynasty. A blue and white china jar dated from the Yuan period was the highest-selling porcelain artefact ever. (From lecture: the Yuan dynasty was seen as the peak of Chinese development of porcelain.)

Marco Polo Bridge Incident

July 1937. Marked the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War. "Under agreements going back to the beginning of the century countries with legations in China had the right to keep troops there in modest numbers for protection. Small numbers of both Japanese and Chinese soldiers were stationed near what in the West was called the Marco Polo Bridge, because the explorer had seen and described its predecessor, near the town of Wanping outside Beijing. What happened that July night is not entirely clear, but the Japanese were carrying out training exercises without giving the customary notice and a few shots were exchanged between them and the startled Chinese troops. The Japanese discovered that one of their soldiers was missing, thought the Chinese might have captured him and demanded to be allowed to search Wanping for him. The Chinese said they would do the searching themselves, with one Japanese officer accompanying them. Japanese infantry then tried to force their way into Wanping, but were driven back. Both sides sent more troops to the area and early in the morning of July 8th Japanese infantry and armoured vehicles attacked the bridge and took it, but were driven off again. Attempts were made to settle things, but the incident gave Japanese hawks the excuse to mount a full-scale invasion of China."

Eurasian steppe

Mongol origin and path of conquest. Forced Mongols to adapt for mobility, due to steppe environment: irregular rainfall in any given area; camps followed local rain patterns and seasonal changes, rainfall can immediately transform arid land into copious grass fields, steppe summer can reach 110+ °F; winters can drop to -60 °F. Functioned as both a highway (Mongol travel) and "factory" (Mongol home, source of produce--think in terms of horses).

The Arrow War (2:87)

On 8th October 1856, a lorcha called the Arrow rode into Guangzhou harbour. The Chinese martinet owning the ship had obtained British registry and an Irish "captain of convenience" in Hong Kong, taking advantage of British extraterritoriality to put their ships beyond the Qing government. The Qing, however, had reliable reports the the Arrow was involved in piracy. Unaware of the Arrow's British registry, they attacked the ship and took the crew into custody while the Irish captain was breakfasting on a nearby vessel. Allegedly, the Qing soldiers hauled down the British flag and found it overboard. The British government had been planning a second war in China, and deemed this incident as a valid grounds for an attack. The real issue at stake was the the opium trade, which was still very important to Britain and its colony India. Aided by the French, the British invaded Beijing, looted the city, and burned the Summer Palace. In peace negotiations, the British, French, Russians, and Americans collectively demanded ambassadorial relationships, more open ports, the right to run ships up the Yangzi, lower tariffs, further indemnity, and that the Qing promise to protect Christianity. The Qing fought the Arrow War while still struggling with the Taiping and other rebellions—sapping much of their resources.

Shanhai Pass (also called Shanhaiguan)

One of the major passes in the Great Wall of China. In 1644, Li Zicheng led a rebel army into the Ming dynasty capital of Beijing, marking the official end of the Ming dynasty. After occupying the capital, Li attempted to enlist the support of Ming general Wu Sangui, commander of the powerful Ningyuan garrison north of the Great Wall. Rather than submit to Li, Wu contacted the Manchu Qing dynasty, suggesting that they combine forces to drive the rebels from the capital. Dorgon, regent of the Qing, marched his army to Shanhai Pass to receive Wu's surrender. Together, Wu and the Manchus defeated Li Zicheng's army near the pass, and Li was forced to abandon the capital. The Qing victory enabled their army to enter Beijing unopposed, and established them as the dominant power in China.

Qianlong

Qianlong Emperor (1711-1799) lived till 87. On Qianlong's 70th birthday in 1780, it was noted that since the Three Ages (Xia, Shang, Zhou), only six rulers lived to 70, including Han Emperor Wu; Tang Emperor Xuanzong; Song Emperor Gaozong, founder of the Southern Song; Kublai Khan,founder of the Yuan; and the founder of the Ming. Inscribed seal 古稀天子:"rare-in-ages-past Son of Heaven. Son of Heaven: ruler with heavenly mandate; rare in ages past: 70 yrs, a rarely-seen long, flourishing reign. This seal oft-seen on fine paintings. Officially destroyed the Zunghar Mongols after massacring them all.

foreign "factories" in Canton (1:66)

Qianlong emperor 18th C. factories maintained by foreign nations--each nation confined to one: a complex set of warehouses, offices, and accommodations.

Complete Library of the Four Treasuries

Qianlong emperor in 18th C. successor to The Great Canon of Yongle (14th c.) Submitted books to imperial library to be returned. 3,595 books for whole set (about half of Yongle's amount)• 36,000 volumes; 800 million words. Up until recently, largest encyclopedia ever compiled. Wikipedia, est. 2001, exceeded Four Treasuries only in 2011.Literary inquisition and purging of 2,000+ works.

bi-annual tax (Open Empire, 6:207)

Replaced the equal-field system in 780. Taxation based on land size, not household size. (tbc) The state continued to collect the tax on agricultural production but it was forced to develop a new method of taxation. In 780, it launched the two-tax system, a twice-yearly collection of taxes in summer and autumn, as the replacement for the defunct equal-field system. Each province was assigned a quota, which the military governors paid to the center, and then local government officials distributed the tax burden among the local population as they saw fit.

Tang Emperor Xuanzong

Restored the empire of the Tang after Emperess Wu's brief interruption in the late 600s and early 700s. He was infatuated with Consort Yang but killed her during the An Lushan rebellion. Gave too much power to Lushan. Became uninterested in politics. Handed out political favors. Ruler of the Tang from 712-756. Popularised dance and spectacle, often of the Hu variety. Famous for horse-dancing, and holding nine-day long carnivals at the capital.

Wang Jingwei

Rival of Chiang Kaishek as the successor of Sun Yat Sen. Although he was not a communist he was part of the more left leaning elements of the Guomindang and was more willing to cooperate with the communist. After Sun Yat Sen's death he elected chairman of the Nationalist party. However after Chiang Kai-shek rises to prominence after the "Northern Expedition," Chiang sets up a rival nationalist government in Nanjing. The "white terror" of April 1927, causes a split between the KMT power bases in Nanjing and Wuhan and strain's Wang Jing Wei's alliance with the communist party. After the Guomindang left ends their relationship with the communists in July, the Nanjing nationalist front emerges victorious.

Yuan Shikai

Ruled 1913-1916 in the early republican period. Put himself on silver coins. Told empress dowager Cixi to stop the civil exams in 1905.

evidentiary scholarship (1:54-5)

Scholarship during the Qing was orthodox. Merchants made great profits selling texts advertised as 'traditional' and 'Confucian'. Qing scholars were interested in why the Ming had collapsed. The explanation they favoured was that the school of Neo-Confucianism, with its subjectivism and relativism, had corrupted public morals, and that rulers had placed themselves above the common good—and now needed checks by strong ministers and conscientious scholars. Ming loyalist Gu Yanwu (1613-1682) analysed of the earliest possible primary sources in order to verify historical events and errors or revision that Song, Yuan, and Ming scholars had made in annotating and interpreting ancient texts. This became a mainstream practice, evidentiary scholarship. Scholars looked into the grammar and content of texts in order to detect forgeries and to access the true principles of Confucian morality.

Sogdian bounce

Sogdian dance, popular in Tang •more bouncy than traditional Han-style

Learning of li (lixue)

Study of philosophy (li=pattern, xue=learning). Revival of (neo-)Confucianism. Propounded daotong, lineage of the Way:Duke of Zhou; Kongzi; Mengzi...Zhu Xi. Establishes basis for legitimacy/illegitimacy claims. Criticizes Buddhism & Daoism by drawing sectarian lines. Introduces li (pattern, principle) as key concept. Claims rational understanding of the structure of reality: Zhu Xi: "The Way is the whole; principle is the fine structure." Compare "li"to "laws" of physics. Principles of nature and ethics are inherent patterns of universe. Provided an answer to Buddhist cosmology and metaphysics. Articulates a paradigm for research into 'laws' of natural world. an aspect of modernity: compact expression of intellectual mastery of nature.

Sancai (three illuminations)

Tang style of pottery glaze; literally "three colours". Often used drip and seeping effects. During the Tang. Glaze for ceramics. Fixed application for drip and seeping effects were desired patterns. Then baked in a kiln. quartz powder: melted to form glassy surface. •lead-oxide: lowers melting point of quartz.base clay →white with quartz gloss.iron →amber.copper →green. cobalt →blue

First United Front

The First United Front, also known as the KMT-CPC Alliance, of the Kuomintang (KMT) and the Communist Party of China (CPC), was formed in 1923 as an alliance to end warlordism in China. Together they formed the National Revolutionary Army and set out in 1926 on the Northern Expedition.

Jurchen

The Jurchens were a non-Chinese people living in the northeast of China (modern provinces of Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang). In the late 11th century they formed a tribal confederation under the tribal leader (qagan) Aguda. With a strong military organisation of all tribes they succeeded to subdue the likewise non-Chinese Khitans that ruled Chinese farmers in the north. The Jurchens conquered northern China and founded the Jin dynasty (1115-1234). (g) In 10th c., many Jurchen migrated to China's NE plain. Also (anachronistically) called "Manchurian" plain.Forested plain between Khingan & Changbai mtns. Hunting, fishing, farming, livestock breeding."Cooked" and "raw" Jurchen: Chinese called Jurchen near China "cooked"; northerly Jurchen were "raw."Longstanding engagement with Chinese:trade, tribute/indemnity, ally/enemy. 12th c., Song dynasty allied with Jurchens to defeat Khitan Liao and recover the 16 prefectures—then Jurchens turned and took Kaifeng. Jurchens established the Jin dynasty in the north.

Mongol Zunghar (1:41-3)

The Kangxi emperor had to deal with problems in Inner Asia. Mongolia was a threat: in particular, in the northern part of modern Xinjiang, the Zunghar Mongol khan, Galdan, was establishing his own state, with relations with the Dalai Lama, and support from the Russian Empire. The Kangxi emperor thought of the Zunghar as the most important threat. Establishing a trade relationship with the Russians through the Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689), the emperor separated the Mongolians from Russia. He carried three campaigns against Galdan, in 1690, and 1696-7. In 1697, fleeing, Gladan died suddenly. The emperor then shifted is four on conquering the Zunghar empire.

Liao dynasty

The Khitan rule, referred to as the Khitan Liao dynasty.

semu (8:257)

The Mongols d ivided ppl into 4 classes:Mongol; semu ("various categories") northern Chinese; Southern Chinese. . semu: multi-lingual, Chinese + another language.steppe (Khitan, Tanguts), Tibetans, Uighurs, Central Asians: . e.g, Ahmad from Tashkent (Uzbekistan) was finance minister. . Mongol and semu dominated top posts,and held 30% of all positions as 1.4% of total population.

Self-Strengthening movement

The Self-Strengthening Movement, c. 1861 - 1895, was a period of institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing dynasty following a series of military defeats and concessions to foreign powers. Educating and mobilizing women.

Grand canal

The Sui-dynasty Grand Canal linked a series of preexisting waterway and harnessed several rivers to make a link between the Sui capital an the grain-producing areas of the south. It was not always filled wit water; sometimes porters had to carry boats from one body of water t the next. The emperor used conscripted labor to build these waterways which served a political purpose in unifying the north and the south. Built by Yang Guang of the Sui after his father Yang Jian founded the Sui. Public works projects like the Grand Canal helped to keep China together in the centuries after the Sui reunification of 589. Luoyang, with canal, now linked to even more fertile south lands. • canal supplied luxuries from south.

Consort Yang

The favored consort of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang. Emperor Xuanzong's favourite consort. Famous for dance of "Rainbow Skirts and Feathered Blouse". elevated her cousin Yang Guozhong to chief minister, who purged An Lushan's associates.

jinshi (1:47)

The final rank of the Qing examination system. There were four levels. The qualifying exam, then the triennial country-level examination for the status of licentiate (shengyuan). Licentiates enjoyed privileged status under the law (no corporal punishment), and were enrolled in county school (which held no classes.Then there the triennial provincial examinations for the status of "recommended" man, juren. Then the Beijing triennial Metropolitan Examination, for the tribute literatus degree, gongshi. Then the Palace Examination, the top three ranks of which would be recognised as the jinshi, presented literatus.

Pipa (open empire chapter 5)

The officials, who commanded enormous sums of disposable wealth, patronized the popular musical troupes of Central Asian women who played new instruments, like the pipa, similar to a guitar, and who performed at parties while seated on platforms carried by camels.

jun ware

Thick opalescent glaze. Thinner on edges, giving gradation. Often splotched with purple/brown. Holographic appearance due to thickness. Grainy texture, often with deliberate fractures on surface.

13 hongs

Thirteen licensed merchant houses of Canton, assigned to foreign factories by the Chinese. Foreign traders could only enter the market through negotiation with these hongs. The Thirteen Factories also known as the Canton Factories, was a neighborhood along the Pearl River in southwestern Guangzhou in the Qing Empire from c. 1684 to 1856. These warehouses and stores were the principal and sole legal site of most Western trade with China from 1757 to 1842. The factories were destroyed by fire in 1822 by accident, in 1841 amid the First Opium War, and in 1856 at the onset of the Second Opium War. The factories' importance diminished after the opening of the treaty ports and the end of the Canton System under the terms of the 1842 Anglo-Chinese Treaty of Nanking.(Wikipedia'd).

Jiangxi Soviet

Wei Jingwei establishes the Jiangxi Soviet, 1931-34. Featured: peasants with rights to land, less taxation, peasant councils. However, the soviet was encircled by Chiang Kai-shek, leading to the Long March.

woodblock printing

Woodblock printing (established year ~700) allowed Chinese artisans to mass-produce copies of text or art by carving designs into wood blocks, covering the wood with ink, and then pressing these into paper. Originally used to easily reproduce images of deities, woodblock printing eventually came to be used to produce early books. moveable type: • woodblock, ceramic, copper plates. • compare to Gutenberg metal moveable type in 1450. • transformative tech—creation of print economy, culture: • facilitates paper money. • availability of texts and widespread literacy. • explosion of manuals (medicine, manufacturing, technical books, etc.) • market-driven book production; deluxe editions for high-end market.

The Tumu disaster of 1449 (9:299)

Zhengtong emperor, 22 at time, fancied himself a great warrior. When the Mongol leader Esen raided Ming territory, Zhengtong insisted on leading an expedition to punish the powerful Mongol. The expedition was a failure. Unable to find the enemy at the border area of Datong, they retreated through a vulnerable northern route. Esen attacked the emperor's encampment a the town of Tumu, and captured the emperor. Officials placed Zhentong's brother on the throne. Esen attacked Beijing, and later returned the ex-emperor, who remained under house arrest until 1457, when a court faction deposed his brother and restored him to the throne as the Tianshun emperor.

Li Hongzhang

a Chinese politician, general and diplomat of the late Qing dynasty. He quelled several major rebellions and served in important positions in the Qing imperial court, including the Boxer Rebellion. Although he was best known in the West for his generally pro-modern stance and importance as a negotiator, Li antagonised the British with his support of Russia as a foil against Japanese expansionism in Manchuria and fell from favour with the Chinese after their defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War. His image in China remains controversial, with criticism on one hand for political and military mistakes and praise on the other for his success against the Taiping Rebellion. (tbc)

Red Guards

a group of middle school students who organized under one name, "Red Guards," and wrote essays and installed posters criticizing Peking University's bourgeois and intellectual administration. At first criticized by fellow students and school officials as reactionary, Mao later sanctioned the group as those who rebelled against the system. The Red Guards often utilized heavy leftist rhetoric and references to the Monkey King to make their points

The Gadfly

a novel by Irish author Ethel Voynich depicting an Italian seminary student Arthur being swept up in a secret revolutionary movement, adopted as a Russian movie and later dubbed into Chinese, the book became a favorite because it mixed the revolutionary cause with romance, having rejected his faith in the church after betrayal Arthur established his faith in the revolution

The East is Red

a theatrical production from 1965 commemorating the 15 years after the establishment of the People's Republic of China, intended to teach a new generation of Chinese who had not been involved directly in the establishment of the state about the revolutionaries' dedication to the cause, ultimately creating a creation myth around the conception of the PRC

Lin Biao

chairman Mao's second in command, later falling into disgrace after a plot was revealed detailing the assassination of Mao under Lin Biao's orders. He and has family were found dead in the wreckage of a plane crash.

Hu

general term for foreigners from north or west. • north: steppe peoples, Xiongnu, Xianbei, Mongols. • west: Sogdians, Parthians, Persians, Turkic. • word might be related to homophone "beard." . important middle-men of Tang and Byzantine empires. •. prominent among military and merchants in the Tang. •. Sogdian figurines: stablemen, soldiers, musicians. Sogdians: Iranian people centered in Samarkand (now extinct language) • important middle-men of Tang and Byzantine empires. • prominent among military and merchants in the Tang. • Sogdian figurines: stablemen, soldiers, musicians.

ger (8:240)

ger (8:240): Mongol tent.

Manchukuo

the Japanese imperialist puppet state established following the Mukden Incident founded in 1932 and dissolved after Japan's defeat in WWII

Dadu

the Yuan capital. Warring States period: ancient state called Yan. Sui-Tang: northern terminus of Grand Canal. Post-rebellion Tang: capital of various warlord regimes: Yanjing.Song: importance of Kaifeng-Hangzhou connection. Southern Song: a capital of Khitan Liao, and Jurchen Jin. Chinggis Khan razes it in 1215. Grandson Kublai begins construction of capital in 1267, calling it Khanbaliq (Khan City; Marco Polo: Cambaluc). Known in Chinese as Dadu (Great Capital)

chinoiserie

the imitation or evocation of Chinese motifs and techniques in Western art, furniture, and architecture, especially in the 18th century.

Manchu

the term "Manchu" did not exist before 1630s. orig. Jurchen tribesmen, mostly from Jianzhou commandery. Like Jurchen Jin, longstanding engagement with Chinese: trade, tribute/indemnity, ally/enemy. Social structure: settlements, with raids, enslaved captives, chiefs. Hunting, fishing, livestock, limited farming; tributary trade. Monthly markets: horses, wild ginseng, honey, pine nuts, furs, pearls—exchanged for Ming tea, silk, cotton, rice, farm tools. Border area near Liao river was multi-linguistic:Chinese, Korean, Jurchen, Mongolian, Russian, Tibetan.