Chinese Religious Traditions (Midterm)

Daodejing

(Classic of the Way and its Power/Virtue), written by Laozi, according to legend. Very short, only 5k characters. Poetic ambiguity and terseness in language. Central concept is the Dao, the primary principle that remains constant among the realm of finite and transient appearances. One indivisible and underlying reality, creative source of life that precedes the formation of heaven and earth. Dao cannot be described by words (opening lines). Presents an idealized vision of a perfect world.

Qi, Yin/Yang

(Daoism) All things are in essence transfigurations of qi (elemental force or energy), the basic creative force that underlies all existence. Yin (shady side, negative, feminine, soft, submissive, destructive) and yang (sunny side, positive, masculine, hard, forceful, constructive). Origins of universe traced to the primordial force (yuanqi, or primal breath/energy), which is divided into two complementary elements, yang (pure and light that formed heaven) and yin (dense and heavy that formed earth). Human world is in-between the two, made of yin and yang.

Junzi (the "gentleman")

A person of cultivated moral character who exemplified the traits highly valued by Confucianism (ren, li, five relationships) and was educated in literature, dance, and music. Could not be achieved by being simply born into the right family. Looked beyond dry moralizing and promoted that the development of the whole person, which included the attainment of cultural virtuosity.

Wuwei (non-action)

According to Laozi, the best way to achieve a harmonious state was the cultivation of non-action, which means effortless behavior that is free from fixation. It entails avoidance of unnecessary efforts and self-centered activity, not a state of thorough passivity. The sage accords with the natural flow of things. Exemplified in Zhuangzi's tale, Lord Wenhui's cook, who butchers meat between the empty spaces.

Laozi

According to legend, his name was Lao Dan and he worked as an archivist during the Zhou dynasty, however people question if he was a real person, because there are many different records of "Lao Dan" in history. The legend is that he wanted to leave the kingdom, but was stopped by the guard, so he then wrote the Daodejing to pass on his wisdom. Over time, he became transformed into the embodiment of the Dao by his followers, and was deified as the Highest Lord Lao, a member of the highest gods in the Daoist pantheon.

Mandate of Heaven

After defeating the Shang, the early Zhou rulers claimed that they received moral authority to rule directly from Heaven. The right to rule can be lost due to loss of virtue, which explained the overthrow of dynasties. The kings came to be perceived as earthly counterparts of Heaven and exercised their royal authority on behalf of Heaven, thus functioning as a crucial link between Heaven and humanity.

The Lotus Sūtra and the One Vehicle

An important Mahayana text and the focus of Chinese Tiantai school. Buddha seen as a cosmic, immortal Buddha rather than the historical Buddha like in earlier texts. Asserted the superiority and universality of its teachings under the rubric of One Vehicle above earlier texts.

Lingbao (Numinous Treasure)

Another corpus of Daoist texts in Southern China. Focused on the cosmic point of origin. Systematized by Lu Xiujing. Shifted to focus on physical exercise, use of herbs and potions, and alchemy. Emphasis on communal rituals rather than solitary meditation. Notion of universal salvation and other Buddhist influences, such as reincarnation.

Xuanzang

Another great translator in the Tang dynasty. Traveled to Indian during a pilgrimage to the birthplace of Buddhism. Associated with Yogacara doctrines. When he returned to China, became an admired cultural hero. Wrote a travelogue of his studies in India. His texts were more technical and difficult to read.

Samsara

Buddhist notion of continuous cycle of birth, life, and death (reincarnation) and all of the sufferings during these phases. Each reincarnation is based on each life's karma. Cycle ends when one achieves awakening, or nirvana.

Doctrinal taxonomies (panjiao)

Chinese Buddhists, especially the Tianai school, tried to classify Buddhist literature, which was growing more in complexity, based on authenticity and levels of teaching. Different schools of Buddhist teachings placed different texts as the highest form of Buddhist teaching. For example, the Tiantai school placed the Lotus Sutra as the most important, but the Huayan school placed the Huayan scripture, or Flower Garland Sutra.

The Analects

Collection of Confucius' teachings by his followers, presented as short sayings and conversations. Primarily concerned with human life and social order, and kept divinities at a respectful distance and avoided discussion of the afterlife. Major topics include the five relationships, the two principle virtues (ren and li), and ideal gentleman (junzi).

Way of Great Peace and the Yellow Turbans

Daoist group, named after the symbolic headscarves worn by its followers. The members called themselves the Way of Great Peace (Taiping dao), and their main aim was to found a sociopolitical utopia characterized by peace, stability, truthfulness, and harmony, aka Great Peace. Promoted the idea of a sagely ruler who combined religious and secular roles. Engaged in healing rituals and communal worship featuring the chanting of sacred texts. They were defeated by the Han military after staging an unsuccessful uprising against the dynasty in 2th CE.

No-self

Earlier notion of emptiness. Identity is an illusion. Contradicts the notion of karma. One cannot exist without being dependent on the existence of something else, thus it's not absolute. Notion of self is a linguistic product.

Yellow Emperor (Huangdi)

Eastern Zhou period. Most revered of the cultural heroes and sage-kings, who occupies a high position in the divine pantheon. First depicted as a warrior figure, with pacifistic inclinations, and later portrayed as the inventor of most living necessities and the ancestor of all Chinese people.

The five relationships

Father and son, ruler and subject, husband and wife, elder and younger brother, and friend and friend. Confucius believed in a natural hierarchy of a patriarchal social structure. Although it is characterized by superiors and inferiors, both parties must act in accord with their ideal roles, e.g. must still treat the other with kindness and take care. Even though inferiors had to always show their superiors respect, it was necessary to tactfully raise objections if one's superiors were behaving in an unethical manner.

Five phases

Five elements: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. Combined with yin-yang, became the framework for mapping the world in temporal and spatial terms, accounting for transformation and things go through different phases. As time unfolded on a cosmic scale, the five elements would rotate in a fixed sequence. Established correlations between the basic structures and events of the human realm and the cyclical patterns of the natural world.

Four Animals

Found in Vinaya, part of the Tripitaka. Buddhist legend. Four animals, an elephant, monkey, hare, and bird, lived in harmony, and were trying to figure out which one of them was the oldest. Referred to as the four harmonious animals or brothers.

Myth of Chaos (Hundun)

Found in the Zhuangzi. Is a legendary faceless being in mythology, but also represents the primordial and central chaos in cosmology. Hundun was an emperor, and after treating two other emperors very kindly, they gave him seven orifices. On the seventh day (seventh hole), he died. Represents the world before it was divided into heaven and earth, i.e. primal simplicity. Illustrates the dangers Zhuangzi saw in going against the innate nature of things.

Celestial Masters

Founded by Zhang Daoling as an alternative to the other Daoist cults at the time. Preached a utopian vision of a new sociopolitical order and better future. Self-rule theocratic state established in Sichuan, far from the imperial capital. Practices included breathing exercises, dietary rules, and sexual rites. Submitted to a powerful warlord who rose to power after the Han dynasty's collapse in exchange for official recognition and patronage.

Shangdi, Di

Highest god of the Shang pantheon. Regarded as aloof and inaccessible, highly powerful yet removed from everyday lives. No routine sacrifices were made directly to him, meaning they needed the help of the ancestors to approach him. Reigned over all spirits and nature deities, and could control the weather or provide divine assistance in military battles.

Mahayana and Hinayana

Hinayana is the earlier Buddhist teaching, where disciples (Arhat) could only save themselves. Early notions of karma and no-self. Mahayana, newer Buddhist texts, were the first to be translated to Chinese. Seen as the "Greater Vehicle of Buddhism" or the true teachings of Buddha, who now appeared as a cosmic being. Everyone can and must be saved before followers, Bodhisattva, can enter nirvana. Famous canon: Lotus Sutra.

Oracle bones

Important archeological discoveries related to the Shang dynasty, and are the earliest records of Chinese religious belief. Used for divinatory rituals performed by or on behalf of the Shang kings, and were used to express the hopes and desires of the Shang kings or phrased for the king's search of approval or validation for a particular course of action. The fire produced cracks in the bones that were interpreted by diviner, and were recorded in official records.

Expedient means

In the Lotus Sutra, Buddha attributed earlier teachings (vehicles) as expedient means, or a diluted version of Buddhist's true wisdoms and teachings. It was a way for Buddha to allow all of his followers to achieve enlightenment, because not all can comprehend the teachings of the One Vehicle. Uses parable of burning house to explain. This was a Mahayana notion, in order to explain their inconsistencies with earlier (Hinayana) texts.

Confucius

Kong Qiu was born in an upper-class family, and his dad died shortly after. He held a low position in the government during the Spring and Autumn era. Sought to revive Chinese society by reforming the system of government with proper ritual and moral framework, modeled on ancient sages and values. Believed that the best example of a king was the Duke of Zhou. Collection of teachings in the Analects.

Kumarajiva

Kumarajiva became one of the most famous translators in the history of Chinese Buddhism. Arrived in China by invitation of the imperial court. Produced translations of Mahayana scriptures, and taught disciples about the Mahayana doctrines, especially Madhyamaka (Middle Way).

Legalism/Legism

Legalists believed that people are inherently selfish and had antisocial tendencies, thus must be controlled by a comprehensive system of laws and a strict penal code. Had little interest in individual rights, instead was concerned with preserving and strengthening the state and expansion of its power. Utilitarian. The end justifies the means. Later on, became softened as it was packed with Confucian creeds.

Ren and Li

Li (ritual): primary standard of social conduct, encompassing sacred rituals, ceremonials, and all manners of proper behavior. Set guidelines that regulated the patterns of behavior and social interaction in terms of prescribed social roles, which were ideally based on real insight into their true significance rather than mechanical adherence. Blueprint for correct moral action. Ren (benevolence/humanity): genuine love for others and compassionate concern for their wellbeing. Foundation for other virtues such as righteousness, loyalty, and faithfulness. Accords with the supreme Way of Heaven, making the individual truly human and civilized. Goes beyond selfish desires and ego. Placid acceptance of both good and bad fortune. Primary sphere of application is the family, but also extends outwards.

Four Noble Truths

Life is full of suffering. The suffering is caused by desires for sensory pleasures, to be something, and to not be something; also the three poisons: ignorance, attachment, and aversion. There is a way to end suffering. The way is through the eight fold path, which considered the essence of Buddhist practice.

Tallies/Tessera/Talisman

Lingbao scriptures were perceived as powerful talismans. Believed to bestow protection and possess the power to bring upon salvation. People even ingested talismans thinking that it would bring them immortality. Thus, Lingbao texts were only transmitted in a properly authorized manner. Exemplifies the institutionalization of Daosim. Other texts were seen as appropriate for broad distribution, like Laozi's Daodejing.

Ge Hong

Lived as a recluse and studied early Daoist teachings and techniques, and believed that Confucianism and Daoists were complementary. Interested in immorality practices and adhered to a balanced and healthy lifestyle and advocated alchemy. Wrote the Master who Embraces Simplicity, which contained the chemical processes of purification and the elixir of immortality. (See Cult of Immortality)

Bodhisattva

Mahayana monks who were on the path to becoming a Buddha. Anyone who was devoted to Buddhist teachings were able to be saved. Bodhisattva must take a vow that they although they are already enlightened, they refrain from entering nirvana in order to save others. Characterized by compassion for others. Considered themselves morally superior to Arhat (disciples of Hinayana).

Mencius's and Xunzi's views of human nature

Mencius was against strict regulations and harsh punishments, but instead believed in the intrinsic goodness of human nature, which accords with Heaven. All men are good unless they stray from it and act in unwholesome ways. Four inborn virtues: benevolence, righteousness, ritual, and wisdom. Xunzi believed that human beings are naturally predisposed towards evil and seek satisfaction of their selfish desires by various kinds of unethical and antisocial behaviors. Moral excellence requires effort and the application of right teachings, but isn't an easy task. Without it, ordinary people remain lost in a state of ignorance and moral confusion.

Parable of the Burning House

Metaphor for expedient means, or white lies or conventional truth. A wealthy man saved his sons, who were preoccupied with their toys to notice their danger, from a burning house by luring them out of it with the promise of ox-drawn chariots. His wealth is enormous so he has much to spare (e.g. Buddha's wisdom is infinite so he can enlighten all).

Shangqing (Superior Clarity)

Name of a high heaven, from which "perfected beings" descended upon medium, Yang Xi, and taught him a variety of new Daoist teachings. Scriptures of the Shangqi corpus had considerable literary value, e.g. Zhengao. Focused on sacred Daoist texts and were only meant for a select group of well-educated, wealthy people in the South. Practices were based largely on visualizations, or spiritual journeys described in Zhuangzi to mythical places, e.g. sacred mountains. Believed that one can gain immortality by ingestion potions and talismans.

Nirvana

Nirvana or bodhi (awakening) is the goal of Buddhist devotion and practice. A state of peace and an escape from the cycle of rebirth and suffering. Some Buddhist schools believed that all could achieve this, while others believed that only some could. Achieved through the 8-fold path.

Filial piety

One of early Confucianism's focus on social relationships, especially respect for one's parents and ancestors. Virtues that redeem society can be first learned within the context of the family, where power is exercised on the basis of moral expectations and kinship ties. Construed as a central virtue and indispensable initial step in the path of moral cultivation and social order. Even though children had to always show their superiors respect, it was necessary to tactfully raise objections if one's parents were behaving in an unethical manner.

Cult of Immortality

One of the Daoist schools. Used alchemy, dietary regimes, physical exercise, and meditation. Celebrated sages who supposedly achieved immortality and possessed various supernatural powers. The immortals were said to shy away from the ordinary human world, preferring the solitude of mountains. Thus, followers became recluses. Substances used for the "elixir of immortality" included gold, mercury, and cinnabar. (See Ge Hong)

The Scripture in Forty-two Sections

Regarded as the first Indian Buddhist scripture to be translated into Chinese for Emperor Ming of the Han dynasty. However, no Indian version exists and it is different from most sutras. Phrased similar to Confucius' Analects: "The Buddha said..." Contains short aphorisms and parables, and the general overview of the ethical, philosophical teachings of Buddhism. Very instructional.

Uncarved block

Represents the "primordial state of perfection and wholeness" and is regarded as the central value in Daoism. It is associated with spontaneity and creativity. To return to this type of naturalness, one has to identify with freeing oneself from selfishness and desire. The process of self-cultivation begins at a physical level of diet and special exercises and moves onto the three treasures: pity, simplicity, and avoidance of trying to exercise authority.

"Historical Buddha"

Said to be born 5th or 4th BCE in modern Nepal. His mother died shortly after. There was a prediction that Buddha, a prince, would one day be a great king or holy man. Was shielded from the outside world and didn't see any suffering. Escaped the palace and saw the four sights of suffering: aging, disease, a dead body, and came upon an ascetic who devoted himself to finding the cause of human suffering. Buddha wanted to follow his example. Left the palace and began the ascetic life. Meditated underneath the Bodhi tree and nearly starved to death. Finally achieved awakening after not being tricked by Mara, king of the moral world. After his death, his story has been altered so much (i.e. historical Buddha became cosmic Buddha in later Buddhist texts) thus it's hard to distinguish myth from reality. All Buddhist texts recorded after his death.

The Dragon Princess

Story used to convey the universality of Buddha-nature in the Lotus Sutra. A young girl, who was the daughter of the Dragon King, claimed to have attained nirvana, but the other Bodhisattvas were skeptical because she was a girl and very young. She offered Buddha a jewel, which he immediately accepted. She then instantly becomes a Buddha (male) to further prove that everyone has Buddha within.

Queen Mother of the West

Supreme Daoist goddess, who ruled over a western paradise from her majestic palace at the mythical Mount Kunlun. Example of how Daoism was accepting of women as nuns and members of their convents.

Yijing

The Book of Change. A manual of divination from the Zhou dynasty. Featured the forms of the "eight trigrams" or bagua, which was used to predict the future or answer questions, through communication with divinities. One would throw 3 coins and record heads or tails, and translate the meanings using the book.

Matching of meaning (geyi)

The method of pairing technical Buddhist terms of select Chinese expressions during translation, which was criticized by Chinese monks as an impediment to the proper understanding of Buddhist doctrine. Growing awareness that Buddhism had to be understood and approached on its own terms rather than via native systems of values and meaning.

Emperor Ming's dream

The myth of how Buddhism entered China. In the 1st CE, emperor Ming had a dream about a golden deity coming to his palace, which was later identified as the Buddha. The emperor then sent an expedition to the West to bring back Buddhist texts and monks.

Tripitaka

Three Buddhist "baskets" of teaching. Sutra: which were seen as direct Buddhist sermons that were collected after the death of Buddha. Vinaya: which were the rules and regulations of monastic life, such as dress code and dietary rules. Also seen as Buddha's moral dictation. Then there were the Abhidharma were were the philosophical discourse and interpretation of Buddhist doctrine.

Yang Xi

Was a medium employed by Xu family of the wealthy southern aristocracy. Divinities from a high heaven named Supreme Clarity of Shangqing came to him at night and communicated a variety of Daoist teachings. Spirits included Lady Wei and other "perfected beings." Wrote down the teachings in Zhengao. Shangqing revelations eventually were (reportedly) communicated through other families.

Zhuangzi

Wrote a book of the same name. Little is known about him as a person, but he was apparently an upper-class southerner. The "inner chapters" of the Zhuangzi are the only ones associated with him, historically. It is of high literally quality with rich symbolism and understated humor. His stories feature Confucius and compare him unfavorably with the wise Laozi. It talks of the sage Zhuangzi having achieved the Dao and having found the "utmost happiness." Also raises the prospect of immorality.

Shennong (Divine Farmer)

Zhou era mythology. One of the most important cultural heroes, associated with the invention of agriculture, farming tools, irrigation, the calendar, cooking implements, medicine, and drinking of tea. One version of his myth represents him as having the head of a dragon. Sometimes identified as one of the Three Sovereigns in the Warring States period.