Christian, Byzantine, Gothic, Romanesque, and Migratory Art

Apse Mosaic

All the figures in the Apse Mosaic and Choir of San Vitale are flat, symbolic, and isolated, lacking three-dimensional representation. There is no overlapping of figures, nor are there natural poses. While Classical, naturalistic poses will make a comeback from time to time in Byzantium, the Byzantine linear form is firmly established, with its focus on spirituality and detail.

Cordoban Horseshoe

-Islamic -U shaped entryways -This Moorish influence was due to an influx of Spanish artisans from Alfonso VI's court.

What influences can be seen in Romanesque Architecture?

Byzantine and Islamic and Ottonian and Christian

Shroud of Charlemagne.

For Byzantines, the more expensive the materials, the better the works of art. There was a decrease in large marble statuary and an increase in costly materials like metal, ivory, and glass in the early period. The glass industry was driven in part by demand for mosaic pieces, enamel for plating, and individual pieces for imperial court made of blue and purple glass. Unfortunately, most of what is left of the famous Byzantine glass industry is shards. There was a decline of three-dimensional art (like sculpture in the round) in favor of two-dimensional art (like mosaics, frescoes, and enamels). The Shroud of Charlemagne is a silken cloth manufactured in Constantinople in 814 C.E. It depicts a large man riding a chariot. Smaller figures are nearby, not touching him. Note the frontal, linear nature of all the figures and the many ornamental circles with their stylized, repeating motifs.

Theodora and her Attendants

Frames neatly compartmentalize mosaics with bursts of ornamentation. A person depicted in a Byzantine mosaic usually faces front, with staring eyes. While his or her face can be expressive, the features themselves are usually stylized. Much of the complexity of Byzantine mosaics comes from the clothing. Stark, contrasting colors enhance the brilliancy of the drapery. Byzantine bodies are elongated and generalized, their small, pointed feet dangling as if they float above the ground. They are usually outlined in black, enhancing their stark otherworldliness. Mosaic backgrounds are simple, often just a gold field of color. In some Byzantine art, important people are larger and taller than less important people.

Orant (Donna Velata)

Early Christian artists appropriated the orant figure, who raises hands in prayer, from the Roman culture to represent Christian devotees. The female orant figure is positioned between two other representations of her life: in her marriage to the left and with a child to the right. This centralization of the orant figure emphasizes her conversion as a significant life event, like her marriage and the birth of her children.

Define Gothic architecture?

Gothic architecture is best defined as the "quest for height and light", considered to be an opposing pole to the Classical Greco-Roman styles in Europe. The heart of the Gothic aesthetic was the belief that divinity could be experienced through the senses, and Gothic architecture sought to connect viewers to the heavens with high, soaring vaults; bright, multicolored lights; and echoing sounds.

Animal Head Post, from Viking Burial

The ship from the Sutton Hoo burial site is in ruins. However, during a later period, another people, the Vikings, produced a fantastic ship that has been preserved. The 70-foot-long ship was used for burial and was covered over by a burial mound. The Animal head post from the ship gives an idea of the intricacy of the ship's decoration. Like the metal work from the Sutton Hoo burial site, it is decorated with a complex interlace design and the post becomes a beast intended to intimidate.

shoulder clasp, retrieved from Sutton hoo burial site

The shoulder clasp (closed) retrieved from Sutton Hoo ship burial site consists of two curved parts connected with a pin that serves as a hinge. A panel on each side is decorated with millefiori insets. Interlace patterns around the borders of the clasp become serpents, which are staples of poetry from an early period in Ireland.

The Bayeux Tapestry

The Bayeux Tapestry is not a real tapestry, in which figures are woven in with the thread, but an embroidered work of art, in which colored wool was stitched onto a linen background. It resembles a long comic strip made of cloth. The narrative style is a combination of pictographic Byzantine codices and Romanesque illumination. The 58 surviving scenes describe the history of the conflict, William of Normandy's conquest, the Battle of Hastings, and the aftermath. The Battle of Hastings began when England's King Edward the Confessor died in 1066 C.E. William of Normandy was a relative of King Edward, but Harold Godwinson was crowned king. That same year, William sailed for England, slew Harold in battle, and took the crown for himself. In The Bad Omen episode of the Bayeux Tapestry, a comet flies above Harold's palace, making its occupants uneasy. In medieval astrology, comets foretold unsettling events. This comet signifies the coming invasion of England. This scene shares many aspects with illuminated manuscripts: The Latin words floating overhead are much like Byzantines' Greek interjections. Large, bright blocks of color used in the clothing lend an almost cartoonish quality to the narratives, contrasting with the realistic presentation of the figures in the Column of Trajan. The blocks of color are typical of Romanesque illumination and of most art of the period. Narrow upper and lower registers frame the story, in contrast to the intertwined figures in the Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus. Elongation provides elegance and allows for the expanded portrayal of movement; look how the pointing men use not only their hands, but also their entire bodies. The others' upraised hands speak of curiosity and concern. Even the architecture is stylized and elongated, arching high over the figures' heads like the churches of the era. These architectural motifs, along with stylized landscapes, punctuate and break up the long narrative.

Theotokos between Saints Theodore and George

-Byzantine Style Though life-like portraiture was not popular, much of Byzantine art sought to represent people (and angels) individually. Byzantine artists did this by referring to complex Christian and Classical symbolism along with using straightforward Greek labels. Byzantine images seek to tell a story, either a well-known one from the Bible, an exploit of an emperor or empress, or the heroic actions of a saint. The icon Theotokos between Saints Theodore and George from the Monastery of St. Catherine portrays Mary, the mother of God (Theotokos), enthroned with an infant Christ, flanked by two saints, with angels rising in the background. An icon like this would be displayed at a church or in smaller form at a private home. All figures are flat and frontal, wearing textured drapery and floating atop small, pointed feet and demonstrate the distinctly Byzantine style. People soon started spreading rumors about the mystical properties of these spiritual, otherworldly icons. Some icons spoke, cried, or bled. Some were said to be acheropoietes. The Virgin of Vladimir is a middle-period Byzantine icon. She is characteristic of the Byzantine style, evident in the flat gold background, stylized but expressive face, elongated proportions, and ornamentally folded drapery. Some members of the clergy condemned what they saw as a violation of the second commandment, which bans the use of idols. This influenced Emperor Leo III, who was having a difficult time as Islamic armies kept defeating him. After a major volcanic eruption in 726 C.E. darkened the skies over Constantinople for days, Leo III decided that the hand of God had been withdrawn from his city because icons were being used as idols. Once Leo III banned icon use, he started to win battles. This began a tradition of iconoclast emperors. During this movement, known as iconoclasm, church mosaics were painted over with lime and replaced by secular or natural images. Eventually, the widowed Empress Theodora stopped iconoclasm while acting as regent for her son, Michael III, in 843 C.E. The Triumph of Orthodoxy was made in the late Byzantine Period as part of a commemorative celebration of the end of iconoclasm. Mary Theotokos is enthroned in the center of the upper register. Empress Theodora and her young son take up the left. On the right is Patriarch Methodios, a man who had been tortured and imprisoned due to his love of icons and who had been raised to his post by Theodora herself. In the lower register are saints, some holding icons. The background is the now typical gold. The figures are largely frontal, though there is overlapping. A few floating feet are visible. Contrasting colors are the most obvious part of this picture. The overall impression is of an intensely stylized icon-painting tradition. Icons, of all Byzantine work, are usually the most rigid in form. This is partly due to the popularity of set images among the people and to the standards set by defiant defenders of icons.

Notre Dame de la Belle Verriére

-The pictorial world of Gothic stained glass is flat. This window depicts the Virgin Mary haloed, crowned, accompanied by the dove of the Holy Spirit, and enthroned with Christ as a baby on her lap. Lacking depth the figures float, similar to Byzantine figural representations. In this work, the colors, not the forms, are most important as they support the lux nova in the cathedral and enhance the spiritual experiences of those on pilgrimage.

Röttgen Pietà

-The sculptor of the Röttgen Pietà portrayed the Virgin Mary cradling a dead Christ. Her face is twisted in an expression of unbearable grief as a distorted and stunted Christ is stiffened in death and covered with streams of blood gushing from a huge wound.

Santiago de Compostela

-claimed the relics of the apostle St. James, who was credited for assisting in Spain's defeat of the Muslim invaders of the 8th century. -Christians began pilgrimages to visit the site of St. James's relics and pray at his church. Four main pilgrimage routes developed from locations in France, all converging on Santiago de Compostela.

Christ as the Good Shepherd

In many cases, Christians and Jews adopted and adapted imagery from the surrounding Roman culture for their own purposes. The motif of the good shepherd was adapted by Christians from images of shepherds popular in the surrounding Roman culture. In the catacombs of Christians and in churches, this shepherd image was appropriated to represent Jesus, the "Good Shepherd" who gave his life for his sheep.

Romanesque vs. Gothic

Romanesque vs. Gothic Radiating chapels and apse: Separate compartments. Unified, unbroken space. Vault: Mostly barrel-vaults, some groin-vaults. Groin-vaulted cathedrals. Arch type: Rounded arches. Pointed arches. Main vault support: Thick walls, buttresses. Exterior flying buttresses. Clerestory: Small windows. Large stained-glass windows. Elevation: Horizontal, modest height. Vertical, soaring. Exterior: Plain, little decoration, solid. Ornate, delicate, lots of sculpture. Sculptural decoration: Thin, elongated, abstract figures. More realistic proportions and individualized features. Mood: Dark, gloomy. Tall, light-filled. Example: St. Sernin, Toulouse, France. Chartres Cathedral, France.

What did Christians use to bury the dead?

-As the Etruscans used elaborate tombs and mausoleums within larger necropoleis to bury their dead, Jews and Christians used catacombs.

Cluny III

-Benedictines (monks) became a major cultural, spiritual, and economic power. -Cluniacs built church (answers only to the Pope) -enormous and elaborately decorated romanesque -The Cluniacs' believed a lavishly decorated church was appropriate for communicating Christian doctrine and glorifying God. -Cluny III Abbey, a pilgrimage church, was built three times, each on the same location and an expansion of the previous structure. Alfonso VI, the King of Spain, gave 10,000 talents and enough money to cover half the cost of the Cluny III construction project. Much of the structure was torn down during the French Revolution, the bell and clock towers were the only original elements that remained. - the first church to build full-scale double transepts in the chevet, incorporate pointed arches, and the Córdoban horseshoe lobes on arches. -pointed arch, however it is still Romanesque -tall windows allow for more light

Modena Cathedral

-Few sculptors' names from either the medieval or the Romanesque period are known with certainty. Wiligelmus, however, inscribed his name on a dedication stone set into the western façade of the Modena Cathedral. -Modena was a principal Italian Romanesque church in the 11th and 12th centuries. The western façade of the Modena Cathedral is decorated with four friezes. The four panels, each with a carved frame, originally formed one continuous frieze to tell the story of Genesis. -The first panel depicts the Creation and Fall of Man. The panel reads left to right. God the Father is robed. Adam and Eve are shown naked, and then shown embarrassed by their sin and hidden behind fig leaves. -There is great variety in depth of relief in Wiligelmus' work. Adam's leg is carved in the round, creating highlight and shadow, while columns in the background are sculpted in bas-relief. -The narrative used in the Modena Cathedral inspired the use of narrative, and this form of storytelling through sculpted portals became an established practice across Europe to teach morals and Bible stories.

Saint Foy

-Romanesque -Reliquary of Saint Foy: In the case of the relic of Sainte-Foy, a monk from the abbey church at Conques stole the saint's skull from the nearby abbey of Agen, claiming that Saint Foy wished to move and justifying the act as furta sacra. The reliquary is a statue of the martyr fashioned of gold leaf and silver gilt over a wooden core, and has inset jewels from various dates as they were placed when donated from pilgrims and church patrons over many years. -The Romanesque Church of Sainte-Foy reflected the need to support large crowds in its changes in church design, including longer and wider naves and aisles, transepts and ambulatories with additional chapels, and second-story galleries. -The tympanum over the main doors is a relief sculpture of the Last Judgment arranged in three registers. Christ is at the center, surrounded by saints and historical figures. Above his head, angels hold banners with inscriptions from the book of Matthew, and below the judgment is proceeding and heaven and hell are portrayed as roofed buildings. The tympanum is intended to elicit fear and contemplation of the last days from those who enter the church.

Saint-Pierre Cathedral

-Stone relief sculpture also inhabited the tympanum, the semicircular panel centered above the double doors. Like the trumeau, the tympanum at Saint-Pierre Cathedral is located in the church's deeply recessed southern porch. -The theme of this tympanum—God's righteousness as Final Judge—is from the New Testament Book of Revelation. The portal sculpture displays the crowned King of All Kings in hierarchical scale; Christ is larger and more intense than the other figures. Each figure's size and location connote their relative importance. -For example, twisting in figure eights around Christ are the four beasts of the Apocalypse, waiting under his direction to be unleashed. Two tall angels round out the central composition. -Finally, filling the space away from the central figures are 24 elders. These much smaller figures look like stars surrounding Christ; they carry chalices and play musical instruments in worship. The masses of pilgrims entering this church would contemplate the meaning of the monumental sculpture. The tympanum showed the preeminence of Christ and was meant to motivate Christian believers to live out their faith, including living a moral life and giving to the church.

Chartres Cathedral

-The Gothic Chartres Cathedral is the site where a piece of linen is kept that is believed to have been worn by the Virgin Mary when she gave birth to Jesus. This linen is believed to have healing powers; therefore, the cathedral was a pilgrimage site. Dedicated to the Virgin Mary, the cathedral features a tall stained glass window called Notre Dame de la Belle Verriére. -The plan of Chartres supports the sacred needs of pilgrimage. The labyrinth-like nave facilitates the circumambulation of pilgrims as a form of penance, in a similar function and fashion to the Great Stupa at Sanchi. -The tympanum over the main entrance, or Royal Portal, at Chartres Cathedral proclaims the majesty and power of Christ. -The left tympanum depicts Christ's Ascension to Heaven, the center tympanum depicts the Second Coming, and the right tympanum depicts Mary enthroned in a similar fashion as the Byzantine representation Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George. This is significant as Mary, represented interceding for the pilgrims, plays a central role through the Gothic period, during which time her following reached a high point. As compared to the tympanum of the Church of Sainte-Foy, the message portrayed is of hope in the Second Coming and Christ's intercession for those who believe.

Laon Cathedral

-The architects retained many Romanesque features in their design, such as the round arches over the portals, but these were combined with the new forms of the Early Gothic: rib vaults, pointed arches, and large glass windows. The west façade has a deeper porch, a sign of a more pronounced departure from the Romanesque style that was still present at Saint-Denis. The vast, open space of Laon's interior was meant to impress the viewer and to reduce mass and replace it with intricately framed voids.

Gothic Features

-The beginning of the use of pointed windows to help distribute weight more efficiently -Early experimentation with vaulting techniques, such as groin vaults and the use of ribs -Use of segmented units to construct a regular plan -Rhythmic elaboration of the interior elevation and nave arcade -The addition of the east end of the church (as in the development of the pilgrimage choir) -The elaboration of Carolingian west work into a dramatic two-towered entrance

Gothic Plan

-The typical Gothic plan is cruciform, consisting of a nave, transept, choir/sanctuary, and radiating apsidal chapels. The Gothic structure is more complex, with deeper porches, more sculptural decoration, and architectural ornament. Interior spaces are more open and unified, and the walls are platforms for expanses of windows. -Gothic exteriors are highly decorative surfaces, covered with figural and architectural ornament and punctuated by multiple large windows. Flying buttresses, working in tandem with rib vaults to facilitate higher, thinner walls, almost transform the exterior from architecture to sculpture. Round rose windows typically feature on the west and transept façades.

Notre Dame

-also know as the Cathedral of Paris, is a prime example of Early Gothic style. It bridges the period between the emergence of the style at Saint-Denis and its fullest expression in the High Gothic cathedrals of the 13th century C.E. -The flying buttresses support higher and thinner walls and allow for increased window size. By relocating such a large portion of the building's support system to the exterior, architects were able to dramatically open up the interior to create a large, unified, and uninterrupted space. Like the Laon Cathedral, Notre Dame was four stories. However, a small, round, stained glass window was placed in each bay, further reducing the masonry area.

Saint-Denis

-important to the French monarchy as the burial place of the kings of France, the repository for the regalia of the French Crown, and the shrine for the relics of St. Denis, the patron saint of France. - Abbot Suger was a scholar, trusted advisor of the king, and, as the abbot of the monastery of Saint-Denis, a pioneer of the new Gothic architectural style. Suger incorporated new architectural techniques as a way to inspire visitors to the church. Construction began under Suger's direction on a new abbey church, starting with a new west façade and narthex in 1135 C.E. -Suger's innovation was marked by the round rose window punctuating the central division of the façade. Another departure from Romanesque was the renovation of the choir. The ambulatory and chapels open into one another to create a feeling of open, flowing space that allowed more light to filter into the room. Light enters easily through large stained-glass windows and, without walls to confine it, spreads throughout the entire church. -Lux Nova (light) was the presence of god -Through the contemplation of light and color, seen through the stained glass windows, Suger believed that the soul would be illuminated and connected with God and transported from Earth to Heaven. -The church truly became the house of God—Heaven on Earth. The divine light streaming through the windows changes with the time of day, seasons, and weather. While both Gothic and Byzantine traditions use light to transform the material world into a spiritual one, Gothic glass filters light from the outside while Byzantine mosaics reflect light from the interior.

Justinian mosaic.

A similar mosaic from the San Vitale is of Justinian I, a Byzantinian emperor, and his attendants. Identifiers of his imperial power are in his clothing: he wears purple with a golden tableion, a richly jeweled crown, and a pendant broach. Justinian holds the bowl containing the unleavened bread that was used in the Holy Communion and has a halo around his head. Though this is an important combination of religion and government, emperors of Constantinople were not considered gods or deified upon their deaths, which was considered idolatry in Christianity, as were emperors in Ancient Rome. Justinian was not a high priest, as Roman consuls were; the high priest in Constantinople was the archbishop. Justinian is potrayed as the largest figure, representative of his importance.

Golden Haggadah

A similar work, the Golden Haggadah, is believed by scholars to have been created by Christian artists for a wealthy Jewish family for use in the home. A Haggadah is a collection of Jewish prayers and readings written to accompany the Passover Seder. The Seder occurs on the first two nights of Passover, and the Haggadah is read to retell the story of the Jewish exodus from Egypt. The yearly retelling of the story of exodus during the Seder is to recognize history and bring the story to life for both the teller and the listener.

Basilica of St. Sernin

Anatomy of Church: -Nave-The nave in the pilgrimage church plan was lengthened to accommodate more pilgrims. -Side Aisle- The side aisles were doubled, with an additional outer aisle adding for easier movement of large groups of people. -Crossing-The crossing marks the intersection between the nave and the transept. -Transept-The transverse section of the church plan perpendicular to the nave. Additional apses were added to the transept to house relics that pilgrims came to see. -Pilgrimage Choir-The area that includes the enlarged apse, ambulatory, and radiating chapels. -Ambulatory-Walkway added so pilgrims could walk around the main apse to view the relics. -Radiating Chapels-Semicircular chapels housing relics that "radiated" outward from the pilgrimage choir along the ambulatory. -Apse-A semicircular or polygonal termination to the choir, chancel, or aisle of a church.

Jacob Wrestling the Angel, from the Vienna Genesis

Another page shows Jacob Wrestling the Angel, also in continuous narrative. There are several episodes depicting Jacob's journey and his encounter with the angel going from left to right and then twisting around and back to the left. The artist has included vegetation and the twisting of the bridge behind and in front of the figures to help create the illusion of depth. Christianity during the Middle Ages placed increasing emphasis on the power of the book.

Catacombs of Priscilla

As the Etruscans used elaborate tombs and mausoleums within larger necropoleis to bury their dead, Jews and Christians used catacombs. The earliest Christian imagery in the Roman catacombs dates from about 200 C.E. The catacombs in Rome were cut out of a soft rock called tufa, and the walls were lined with loculi where bodies might be placed. Loculi line the walls in the gallery of the Catacomb of Priscilla in Rome. The catacombs are believed to be named after the wife of a Roman consul. She converted to Christianity and as a result was sentenced to death. Originally, the loculi would have been covered with plaques inscribed with information about those buried and sometimes with simple drawings.

Christianity

CHRISTIANITY IS ROOTED IN JUDAISM, BUT THE TWO RELIGIONS DEVIATED FROM EACH OTHER IN THE 1ST CENTURY C.E. CHRISTIANS INCORPORATED THE HEBREW BIBLE AS THEIR OLD TESTAMENT AND HAVE THE SAME BELIEFS IN THE NATURE OF GOD. THEY BELIEVE THAT PROPHESIES OF THE OLD TESTAMENT WERE FULFILLED THROUGH JESUS, AND THE NEW TESTAMENT TELLS OF THE LIFE OF JESUS, THE EARLIEST DAYS OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH, LETTERS OF ENCOURAGEMENT, AND PROPHESIES OF WHAT IS TO COME.

Book of Gospels

Christians adopted the Hebrew Bible as the Old Testament, adding a New Testament that told of the life of Jesus, the earliest days of the Christian church, and the ultimate triumph of God in the final book of the Bible, Revelation. Although Jesus and the earliest disciples were Jewish, most of his subsequent followers were gentiles. They included narratives from both the Hebrew Bible and their own Greco-Roman culture in the earliest Christian art, as various traditions intersect.

Greek Influence on Petra

Greek and Roman influence are reflected in relief sculpture and Roman Corinthian-inspired columns used in the façade of the Treasury at Petra. While the façade of the Treasury is inspired by and uses Roman and Classical Greek conventions, the architect intentionally deviates by altering the width of the columns and using the conventions as ornamentation only. The Great Temple at Petra has relief images of mythical animals similar to those used in the Babylonian and Persian empires.

Hagia Sophia

Hagia Sophia, or Church of Holy Wisdom, was the largest church in Christendom for a millennium. It was commissioned by Justinian I between 532 and 537 C.E. It was built by two architects, Anthemios of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus; they were mathematicians who had never created anything of this scale before. Completed, Hagia Sophia combines the longitudinal plan of a basilica with the vertical orientation that would eventually characterize most Byzantine churches. The use of numerical arrangements reflected Christian ideas: 3 for the Trinity, 5 for the wounds of Christ, and 12 for the Twelve Apostles. At the east and west ends are half-circles, culminating in semi-domes (with five windows), each of which has three smaller semi-domes (with five windows), culminating in three apses. The north and south ends have five arches along the side aisles and seven arches in the galleries above, with 12 windows in the lunettes. The windows themselves are in two rows: one of seven, and one of five. Early Byzantine churches, like Hagia Sophia, are simple on the outside. However, inside Hagia Sophia, the viewer is transported by the church's majesty. Marbles of every color—some shipped from as far as Egypt—form the pillars, walls, and floors. Halls echo with the sound of choirs. Hagia Sophia looks very different today than it did in the past. It retains its massive dome, but large buttresses and four minarets were added when the church was converted to a mosque by the Ottoman Turks with the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453 C.E. During the day, the 40 windows at the dome's base make it look as though it is floating on light; at night, the light of thousands of candles give that same impression to viewers looking at the dome from the outside. The builders could incorporate so many windows into the dome because they used pendentives to shift the weight from the dome to piers, instead of walls. Because the walls do not support the dome, they could be pierced by many windows. The use of light provides Hagia Sophia with an otherworldly, spiritual characteristic of Byzantine art.

The Coronation Gospels Codex

Illuminated manuscripts would become some of the most valuable portable objects of the time, not only because they were frequently embossed with gold and inlaid with gems, but because creating, possessing, and reading them were acts of piety. Historians have been able to determine the wealth of a site simply according to the number of books produced. Many illuminated manuscripts from the Carolingian Period are liturgies or Gospel Books: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John from the New Testament. Gospel Books were needed across the kingdom to meet the needs of newly built churches and monasteries. These books were handwritten, illuminated, and authenticated as true to the original word. Illuminated Gospel Books were often used at a ruler's coronation service, so many illuminated manuscripts became known as Coronation Gospels, and imperial patronage drove the production of illuminated manuscripts.

Three Youths in the furnace of Nebuchadnezzar.

In some cases, painters created simple narrative images drawn from the Christian Old and New Testaments to decorate the catacombs and other settings. Dominant were references to the miracles of Jesus or scenes in which faithful figures experienced divine deliverance. For instance, the story of Shadrack, Meshack, and Abednego, found in Daniel 3 of the Old Testament, was popular in this period. They would not bow down before the idol of the Babylonian ruler Nebuchadnezzar and were thrown into a fiery furnace as punishment but saved from destruction by God. In this catacomb painting, the three youths raise their arms in an orant gesture. Certainly, the theme of avoiding idolatry resonated in a culture full of such idols. During the 3rd century, Christians found themselves in a position where refusing to participate in the imperial cult risked death, which led to the portrayal of deliverance from death. The prayers for the dead often referenced God's deliverance of the three Hebrew youths and other figures as a paradigm for the ultimate deliverance of those who were buried in the catacombs.

The Exodus

In this detail from the Dura-Europos Synagogue paintings, we see part of the narrative in which the God of Israel delivered his people from slavery in Egypt by miraculously parting the Red Sea so that they could pass through. Like a Hebrew or Aramaic text, the narrative is read from right to left. Although Moses wields his staff, the presence of the large hands above—symbolic of the intervention of Israel's God—is what truly has power to bring about the miracle. Dura-Europos Synagogue does not contain an image of Israel's god; instead, symbols indicate divine involvement in the narrative like the hands from above or images of fire. The Hebrew Bible depicts a nonphysical character of Israel's god and contains various prohibitions against representing this god or creating images of other gods to worship, similar to aniconism in Islam.

Judaism

JUDAISM BELIEVES IN ONE JUST AND FAIR GOD WHO IS CONCERNED WITH THE ACTIONS OF HUMANKIND. IT IS EXTRAPOLATED FROM THE TANAKH, OR HEBREW BIBLE, WHICH WAS DEVELOPED OVER A MILLENNIUM AND CONSISTS OF THE TORAH, NEVI'IM, AND KETUVIM. THE HEBREW BIBLE PROPHESIES THAT A MESSIAH, PROMISED DELIVERER OF THE JEWISH NATION, WILL COME AND BRING AN AGE OF UNIVERSAL PEACE AND RECOGNITION OF GOD; JUDAISM HOLDS THAT THIS EVENT HAS NOT YET HAPPENED.

Christian pilgrimages

Jerusalem, Rome, and the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela

Lindisfarne Gospels

Like the Book of Durrow, it reflects the influence of migration period patterns. In this carpet page, we can see intricate interlace and millefiori patterns, but now the patterns have resolved themselves into a cross, as if this symbol of Christian faith had tamed the powers represented by the birds and other creatures that skulk in the margins. The Lindisfarne Gospels also include evangelist portraits, a type of image derived from early Roman Christian art. Indeed, there is strong evidence that the portraits may be copies, or at least variations on manuscript sources. In this image, the evangelist Luke is clearly derived from Roman sources, but is remade in the visual idiom of the Hiberno-Saxon tradition. The image shows Matthew writing his gospel, and his symbol is depicted above him. The folds of Luke's garments have been transformed into an abstract pattern, as have the evangelist's locks of hair.

Islam

MUSLIMS LIVE ACCORDING TO THE KORAN, ISLAM'S SACRED BOOK, AND INCORPORATE OLD TESTAMENT TEACHINGS, ETHICAL STANDARDS, AND REJECTION OF IDOL WORSHIP. THEY BELIEVE THAT THERE IS ONE GOD, LIKE CHRISTIANS AND JEWS. THEY BELIEVE JESUS WAS THE MESSIAH SENT BY ALLAH TO THE JEWISH PEOPLE TO URGE THEM TO BELIEVE IN ALLAH ALONE AND WORSHIP HIM ALONE. THE FIVE PILLARS GUIDE MUSLIMS IN THE COMMITMENT AND PRACTICE OF ISLAM, AND THE REWARD FOR THE FAITHFUL IS PARADISE.

Archangel Michael

The Archangel Michael comes from an ivory diptych of the 6th century C.E. A representation of the Archangel Michael, it uses Classical elements including the wet drapery technique, Michael's facial expression, and the orb of power he bears in his hand. The orb is surmounted by a Christian cross signifying Christ's dominion over Earth. There is a change in perspective: Michael is in front of the pillars from the waist up, but his feet are on the steps behind the pillars.

Barberini Ivory.

The Barberini Ivory was once part of an imperial diptych celebrating the military triumph of an emperor and represents an intersection of Classical imagery and Byzantine art. At the center is the emperor (possibly Justinian) on a horse. Note that he is larger than everything else and carved in higher relief. In the same panel, Classical elements include a winged representation of Victory flying beside him and a personification of the fertile Earth beneath him. To his side and behind him is a barely visible conquered enemy, likely Muslim. More conquered people bearing gifts make up the lower register. In the left panel, a general holds a statue of Victory. Above the emperor are winged angels surrounding an image of Christ, who gives sanction to the emperor's actions.

The Book of Durrow

The Book of Durrow is the earliest extant example of Hiberno-Saxon Gospel Books. It is named for the town in Ireland where it was kept in the later medieval period, but its origin is unknown. One likely candidate is the monastery on Iona founded by St. Columba during the 6th century. Vikings attacked Iona during the late 8th century; it is possible that the book was taken to Durrow in the wake of this disaster. Each of the gospels begins with an incipit page, in which lavish decoration emphasizes the first letter of the text. In this example, which opens the Gospel of Mark, the I and the first part of the "N" that begin the word Initium are composed of interlace patterns and Celtic spirals that resemble the patterns in metalwork from the arts produced by Celtic and Anglo-Saxon artisans. The letters and words that follow grow smaller and less elaborate. In addition to beautifying a holy book, the incipit pages have the practical purpose of helping the reader locate sections in the book. Each gospel also begins with a full-page image containing an evangelist symbol. On this page, surrounded by an interlace border, the figure of a man looks like a checkerboard with legs and a head. He has the elements of Byzantine stylization: floating, flat, and frontal. The body of the man resembles the millefiori pattern of the shoulder clasp from Sutton Hoo. The floating figure is flattened, with the legs shown from the side, whereas the head is positioned frontally. Despite the extreme stylization of the figure, there are also some realistic details—in particular, the figure is shown with the particular hairstyle of an Irish monk, with the head shaved at the front.

The Great Temple at Petra

The Great Temple at Petra is a sacred precinct on the southern citadel hill, likely in an effort of the Nabateans to imitate Greek and Roman city centers. The temple is dedicated to the principal deity of Petra, Dushara, who is unique to Petra and paralleled with Zeus after Greek and Roman influence. As worshipers enter the complex, they are surrounded by triple colonnades on the east and west side planned similarly to the Generic Greek (Peripteral) Temple Plan. Inside the colonnades is a lower temenos, which leads to the forecourt and the pronaos. Petra's plan deviates from the traditional Generic Greek (Peripteral) Temple Plan. Instead of a cells, there is a small theater or bouleuterion. This leads to the possibility that the temple functioned as a large palace and assembly hall.

Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel, including Lamentation. Padua, Italy.

The Lamentation scene portrays Mary the Mother of Jesus, Mary Magdalene, John the Evangelist, and other figures gathered around the dead body of Christ while angels assemble in Heaven. The figures show emotional expressiveness. The angels fling their arms about and wring their hands; John throws his hands back and lets out a cry of grief; Mary Magdalene holds Christ's feet, calling to mind the story in which she anointed his feet; and other bystanders exhibit signs of deep sorrow. The Lamentation is evidence of the emerging naturalism and humanism that is occurring in this period.

Merovingian looped fibula

The Merovingian looped fibula were likely the possessions of a wealthy Merovingian woman and were intended to accompany their owner into the afterlife. There are decorative patterns covering the entire surface of each of the fibulae. These patterns adjust to the shape of the object, amplify the form and structure, and therefore become an organic part of the pins. A fish is incorporated below the center of each pin, and the looped forms around the edges are stylized eagles' heads, evidence of the inclusion of abstract animal forms.

Crusaders in Constantinople.

The Middle and Late periods of Byzantine art are separated by a gulf of artless space from 1204 to 1261 C.E. This is when Constantinople was sacked by an army of the Fourth Crusade. The Latin invaders built nothing. They put up a puppet state, melting Byzantine metalwork and shipping off a majority of the city's wealth. When Michael VIII led the restoration of the city, poorer materials were used. Frescoes were more common than mosaics. Paper replaced parchment, and book-making diminished. Gold was replaced by silver gilt, pewter, and ceramic—even in the imperial court. Tradition and imitation of older work dominated. Extremities got even smaller and less detailed. Drapery was flat and angular. By the 1400s, Constantinople was in ruins. Centuries of warfare had finally seen an end to the golden city. Following an invasion by the Ottoman Turks, Constantinople was destroyed and renamed Istanbul in 1453 C.E. Its people were scattered; some brought the learning of the Greeks back to the West, while some went north, where Russia stood to inherit the traditions of the Orthodox church.

Purse Cover, retrieved from Sutton Hoo Burial Site

The Purse cover, metalworking, and other kinds of funerary objects were retrieved from the Sutton Hoo ship burial site, crafted in cloisonné, is characterized by two features: Interlace patterns. Interlace is derived from Roman ornamentation, but the heads of monsters are new additions. Animal motifs. Abstract depictions of animals have been woven together as part of the decorative patterns of the purse cover. The two motifs in the center portray falcons devouring ducks. The two outer motifs represent a human figure between two beasts, in a similar style as the Bull-headed lyre. Here, the male figures are abstracted almost beyond recognition.

West Wall of the Torah Shrine

The best-preserved part of the Dura-Europos Synagogue's assembly hall is its west wall, with its focus on the niche that once held a wooden cabinet for the Torah. This is significant as it indicated the beginning of directional worship in Judaism. The west-facing niche enabled individuals to worship the scrolls and Jerusalem at the same time. The three levels of narrative panels on the surrounding walls represent several scenes from the Hebrew Bible that recount the history of Israel in ways that connect to the Jewish community that worshipped there. A simple temple image marks the Torah shrine.

Good Shepherd and Jonah Narrative.

The ceiling painting, divided by red bands against a white ground, is reminiscent of domestic painting in Rome during this period. The disc in the center is a medallion, and the semicircular areas on the wall below are lunettes. The Good Shepherd symbolizes Jesus, with the motif of the lambs repeated in the lunettes below. We see three of the four phases from the narrative of Jonah surrounding. Jonah is shown thrown overboard, swallowed by a whale, spit up by the whale after three days in its belly, and finally reclining under a gourd tree. Notice that Jonah emerges from the whale spreading his hands in prayer for deliverance in a way that echoes the surrounding orant figures and representations of Jesus as he departs the tomb. Jesus compared himself to Jonah because he was in the tomb for three days, just as Jonah had been in the whale three days.

San Vitale

The church of San Vitale was dedicated in the port town of Ravenna a decade after Hagia Sophia was built in 547 C.E. This is not a Western-style church, despite being in Italy, because Justinian's armies had recently reconquered the region. Similar to the plan of Hagia Sophia, San Vitale shows two concentric octagons, with the inner one rising above the outer one. In the central space, eight columned arches separate eight piers. The ambulatory and gallery above it are interrupted by a cross-vaulted chancel that precedes the apse. With all of this symmetry, the asymmetrical narthex is unexpected and gives the church its signature look. The sanctuary is covered with images and symbols that express the idea of Christ's redemption of humanity and the reenactment the Lord's Supper. The celebration of Mass occurred on the lower level, and those in attendance witnessed the Mass processional from the upper balconies. This pulled the viewers into the action of the Mass.

Dedication Page with Blanche of Castile and King Louis IX of France, Scenes from the Apocalypse from a Bible moralisées.

The dedication page is separated into frames and portrays Blanche and Louis on elaborate thrones with oversized heads, emphasizing their importance. They are framed by cityscapes and are vividly gesturing. Blanche appears to instruct the young Louis, underscoring her superior position as she was regent until he came of age. This is significant as royal women were often portrayed as higher status, especially due to the higher status given to the Virgin Mary in art. Below Blanche and Louis, in similar architectural frames, are a monk and a scribe. The monk is instructing the scribe in a similar fashion to Blanche and Louis. The narrative style in the Dedication Page with Blanche of Castile and King Louis IX of France is similar to that used in the wall paintings in the Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel. The wall is separated into frames and has scenes from the life of Christ and the Last Judgment.

Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs

The middle of the 3rd century C.E. was an age of great social, economic, and military disarray in the Roman Empire. The reign of each emperor was usually brief. Rome once again regained a semblance of order under the leadership of Diocletian, who was declared emperor in 284 C.E. Diocletian wisely decided to share power with his potential rivals by establishing a tetrarchy. Constantine, one of the junior tetrarchs, disrupted the tetrarchic system by invading Italy and defeating rival tetrarch Maxentius at the battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 C.E. This allowed him to take control of the Western half of the Roman Empire. Constantine enacted many military, financial, administrative, and social reforms that strengthened the Western half, including the Edict of Milan in 313 C.E. This edict supported Christians in the Roman Empire, so that they no longer faced persecution. In fact, the emperor and some members of the Roman elite became the Christian church's chief supporters and patrons. Constantine was the first Roman emperor to claim conversion to Christianity. There were already Christians in the 1st century C.E., but art with Christian themes did not emerge until about 190 C.E. and was created during a period of intermittent persecution. This art reflects both the beliefs of the growing Christian communities and their adaptation of existing Roman artistic styles.

Constantinople

The modern day city of Istanbul, Turkey, was once referred to as Byzantium. It later became consecrated as Constantinople in May of 330 C.E. and was named after the Roman emperor Constantine, who made it the capitol of the Eastern Empire. Like Rome, it was governed by Roman law, had seven hills, and provided free entertainment and bread to its citizens. The capital of the Eastern half of the Roman Empire was different from its Western sister-city; everyone spoke Greek, and their holy books and educational systems were in Greek. Constantinople was a Christian society. Muslims and Jews existed within its framework, but the emperor, as well as the church's patriarch and most of its citizens, were Christian in their faith. The art and architecture of Byzantium was dominated by Christianity and is classified: early, middle, and late.

Rebecca and Eliezer at the Well.

The word Byzantine today is synonymous with ornamentation. Byzantines employed many elaborate styles of decoration—an elaborate gold frame around an icon, busy geometric patterns on clothing, or thousands of angels crowding an upper register. Greek letters are decorative and informative, and repeating motifs of flowers and animals are similar to neighboring Islamic art. The Vienna Genesis is a luxury manuscript made of purple dyed vellum with gold and silver writing. The purple dye is significant, as it was associated with royalty and also was used to give imperial cloth its distinctive color—evidence of the high value placed on the manuscript. It has several illuminations at the bottom of its pages. There is a continuous narrative, in a style similar to Last judgment of Hu-Nefer, recounting the story of Rebecca and Eliezer at the well, depicting the servant Eliezer finding a wife for Isaac, Abraham's son. In the first episode, Rebecca leaves the city of Nahor to draw water from the well. In the second episode, she offers water to Eliezer and his camels. The city of Nahor is portrayed as a walled city in the background, like cityscapes in Roman Second Style paintings. There is also a partially nude female sitting on the well, a personification of the spring source of the well water. Both are evidence of the classical motifs and stylistic influence in Early Christian art.

Habarville Triptych

Triptychs overcame diptychs in popularity during the Middle Period. The Harbaville Triptych, made of ivory, displays Christ with Mary and St. John in the upper register of the central panel, with apostles below. Saints decorate the doors. Note the frontal figures and the elongated feet, raised up on blocks. The figures on the lower registers are all wearing Classical togas, but the drapery is very flat. A decorative plant motif separates the registers in the central panel. This work begins the decline of classical features and moves toward a new stylistic portrayal: bodies become more elongated and manneristic, and designs become more intricate and ornate.

Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus

combines the Judeo-Christian narrative with the deceased's identity as a member of the Roman senatorial class. The style of the sarcophagus represents a new classicizing trend in the 4th century that departs from the harsh tetrarchic style of the late 3rd century. The front of the sarcophagus is composed of two registers, each subdivided by columns into sections that depict various scenes from the Old and New Testaments.

What encompasses Gothic style?

elegance, realism, and naturalism

pilgrimage

journey to a far away place, often as a sign of devotion

Moralized Bible

one of the large bibles produced during the 13th century. Contains thousands of typologically paired images of bible images and their allegorical interpretations

Rib Vaults

To create the light-filled, open structure at Saint-Denis, Suger's builders used a relatively new technique of vaulting called the rib vault. A lighter, more flexible vault that reduced the support of the walls, it was named for the diagonal and transverse arches under its groins that form a skeletal framework called an armature that appears like ribs in a skeleton.

Pointed Arches

Unlike the semicircular arches in Romanesque vaulting, these arches are pointed. Without the need for heavy supports, these walls can be replaced with glass, columns, and open spaces. The pointed arches help to emphasize the height of the building and its vertical composition. The viewer's eye is naturally drawn up to the apex of the arches, toward heaven, emphasizing the connection to the heavens.

Romanesque

refers to architecture from the 11th and 12th century.

Crusades

a period of armed conflicts in the 11th-13th century in which Christians attempted to win the Holy Land from the Muslims -Pope Urban II was greatly angered that the Christian shrines of the Holy Land were under Muslim control and, therefore, inhibited pilgrimages to these sites. -In a speech given in 1095 C.E., he preached the need to wage a "Holy War" and reclaim control of Jerusalem. With the First Crusade, Christians claimed control of Jerusalem. Before the last Crusades were over, however, Muslim general Saladin marshaled command over Jerusalem again.

chevet

apses built in a cluster that radiate into chapels

More key characteristics to Gothic Architecture:

-lofty masonry that reached toward the heavens -complex, ornate lines with elegant patterns -high, thin walls with great expanses of richlycolored stained glass in large windows that allowed for extensive light

Elements of Gothic Architecture:

1. Rib Vaults 2. Pointed Arches 3. Flying Buttresses

How long did the Gothic Period last?

1150 C.E. to 1400 C.E.

5 Major Sociopolitical Developments that set Gothic Era apart:

1. Religious Structures- THE URBAN CATHEDRALS REPLACED THE MONASTERIES AS CENTERS OF RELIGIOUS PATRONAGE. CATHEDRALS WERE CENTRAL FIXTURES IN URBAN LIFE: MARKETS WERE HELD IN THE SQUARES IN FRONT OF CATHEDRALS, LAW COURTS WERE SOMETIMES LOCATED ON THEIR STEPS, AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION PROVIDED JOBS. CATHEDRALS REPRESENTED CIVIC PRIDE, AND TOWNS COMPETED WITH ONE ANOTHER TO BUILD THE BIGGEST AND GRANDEST CATHEDRAL OF ALL. 2. Societal Structure- ALTHOUGH EUROPEAN SOCIETY REMAINED LARGELY RURAL, CITIES AND TOWNS BECAME INCREASINGLY PROMINENT. THIS PROMPTED THE RISE OF URBAN COMMERCE AND A MORE COMPLEX SOCIAL STRUCTURE THAT INCLUDED MERCHANTS AND ARTISANS. PARIS EMERGED AS THE INTELLECTUAL AND CULTURAL CAPITAL OF GOTHIC EUROPE. TRADE GUILDS SIMILAR TO TODAY'S UNIONS—CONTROLLED THE PRODUCTION AND SALE OF GOODS AND SERVICES. THE STRONG SENSE OF COMMUNAL IDENTITY THAT EMERGED WAS REINFORCED BY PUBLIC BUILDINGS, CHURCHES, ARTWORKS, MONUMENTS, AND CEREMONIES IN CITIES. 3. Universities- THE RISE OF URBAN LIFE WAS SIMULTANEOUS WITH THE RISE OF INTELLECTUAL LIFE. UNIVERSITIES LIKE OXFORD, PADUA, AND PARIS SUPPLANTED THE MONASTIC SCHOOLS AS CENTERS OF LEARNING. THESE UNIVERSITIES EDUCATED NOT ONLY THEOLOGIANS BUT ALSO LAWYERS, DOCTORS, AND PHILOSOPHERS. THIS EXPANSION OF SECULAR KNOWLEDGE LED TO INCREASING OBSERVATION OF NATURE. GOTHIC RELIGIOUS IMAGERY EVOLVED TO INCORPORATE MORE SUBJECTS FROM THE NATURAL WORLD. 4. Philosophy- IN THE UNIVERSITIES AND CATHEDRAL SCHOOLS, A NEW SYSTEM OF PHILOSOPHY, SCHOLASTICISM, AROSE IN RESPONSE TO THE RENEWED INTEREST IN TEXTS FROM CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY BY CRUSADERS IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN. CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHY THAT PROMOTED RATIONAL INQUIRY CHALLENGED CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY, WHICH WAS BASED ON FAITH. TO RECONCILE THE TWO, THEOLOGIANS APPLIED LOGIC TO FAITH AND DEVELOPED A SYSTEM OF REASONED ANALYSIS. BY CREATING LOGICAL PROOFS, SCHOLASTIC THINKERS COULD EXPLAIN SUPERNATURAL PHENOMENA—EVEN THE EXISTENCE OF GOD. 5. Monarchy- IN FRANCE, A STRONG CENTRALIZED MONARCHY EMERGED. WHILE THE CHURCH REMAINED THE CHIEF PATRON OF THE ARTS, THE COURTS OF THESE SECULAR MONARCHS INCREASED THE REPRESENTATION OF NONRELIGIOUS SUBJECTS AND POLITICAL USE OF SACRED IMAGERY. THESE MONARCHIES ALSO FACILITATED THE SPREAD OF THE GOTHIC STYLE THROUGHOUT EUROPE. GOTHIC POINTED ARCHES AND TRACERY PATTERNS APPEARED ON TOWN HALLS, ILLUSTRATED BOOKS, DECORATIVE OBJECTS, TABLE SETTINGS, TEXTILE PATTERNS, AND EVEN SHOES.

three major influences on byzantine art:

Christian: A concern for spiritual imagery, as opposed to naturalistic ones. Antique: Byzantines were proud of their Classical heritage and often looked back to Classical Greece and Rome. Cosmopolitan: Constantinople stood on a crossroads between the Christian West and the Islamic East. Persia, in particular, had great influence on Byzantine art.

Flying Buttresses

Flying buttresses enabled Gothic architects to relocate most of the cathedral's structural support to the exterior. This further reduced the supporting role of the walls, allowing for larger and more window openings and higher vaults. The walls continued to get thinner and more decorative.