CHS 330 Final Exam

Three conditions that promote disasters

(1) Population exposure to an environmental hazard (2) Conditions of vulnerability (3) Insufficient capacity or measures to reduce or cope with the potential negative consequences

General relationship between energy use / production and human health

-On a population basis, there is a clear association between energy consumption and health: -Greater energy availability is associated with longer life spans and improved health, although at the upper end of the spectrum, increased energy use generates only marginal health gains.

Definitions and attributes of PM2.5 and PM10

-Particles of both sizes cause respiratory system irritation and impact the lungs. -PM2.5 particles are capable of being inhaled deeply into the lungs. -PM2.5 particles are not cleared readily from the body. -PM2.5 particles are associated with 60,000 deaths annually (U.S.).

Concept of Hubbert's Peak Oil

-Petroleum is a finite resource. Because it is formed over millions of years, and is being used faster than it is being formed, it is nonrenewable on any human time scale; supply will at some point fall short of demand. The point at which petroleum production peaks and begins to decline is known as 'peak petroleum'. -Petroleum scarcity will have wide-ranging impacts across society, including in the health sector, and will require a range of adaptations. This transition will be technically and socially challenging, costly, and possibly abrupt.

Causative agents, population ecology, and vector biology of Lyme, Plague

-Plague is an infectious disease of animals and humans caused by a bacterium named Yersiniapestis. -People usually get plague from being bitten by a rodent flea that is carrying the plague bacterium or by handling an infected animal. Millions of people in Europe died from plague in the Middle Ages, when human homes and places of work were inhabited by flea-infested rats. -Today, modern antibiotics are effective against plague, but if an infected person is not treated promptly, the disease is likely to cause illness or death.

Public Health factors influencing the extent of climate-related health impacts

-Population and regional vulnerabilities -Social and cultural context -The built and natural environment -Public health infrastructure -Health and social services

General examples of indoor air pollution; definitions of 'Sick Building Syndrome' and 'Building-Related Illness'; improvements in biomass stoves

-Presence of cockroaches -Persistent dampness -Wall-to-wall carpeting -Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke -Infestations with rodents -Pets that have fur -Effluents from gas stoves -Construction materials that contain formaldehyde -Dust mites -Molds -Bacterial agents -Sick building syndrome: No specific illness or cause can be identified. -Building-related illness: Describes a diagnosable illness

Difference between primary and secondary air quality standards

-Primary Standards: set limits to protect public health, including the health of "sensitive" populations such as asthmatics, children, and the elderly. -Secondary Standards: set limits to protect public welfare, including protection against decreased visibility, damage to animals, crops, vegetation, and buildings.

Examples of specific policies that can reduce GHG emissions and result in health benefits

o Increased active transport (walking and cycling) and reduced private-car use in urban settings, o Increased uptake of improved cookstoves in low-income countries, o Reduced consumption of animal products in high-consumption settings, o Generation of electricity from renewable or other low-carbon sources rather than from fossil fuels, particularly coal.

Major zoonotic viral disease vectors

Arthropod/(Arbovirus): -Mosquito -Tisk Mammal: -Rodent/ Robovirus -Bat

Common sources of NOx emissions and mercury emissions

-Electric utilities account for about 22 percent of all NOx emissions in the U.S. -Coal-fired power plants are the single largest source of mercury air pollution, accounting for roughly 40 percent of all mercury emissions nationwide.

Definition of 'temperature inversion'

-An atmospheric condition during which a warm layer of air stalls above a layer of cool air that is closer to the surface of the earth. -During a temperature inversion, pollutants can build up when they are trapped close to the earth's surface.

Clostridium botulinum mechanism of toxic action

-Causes the foodborne disease botulism, a form of foodborne intoxication. -Grows in an anaerobic (oxygen-free) environment and produces a potent toxin (a neurotoxin) that affects the nervous system. Botulinum neurotoxin is the most poisonous substance known. If inhaled, 1 ug would kill a person. It exerts its effect by paralyzing striated muscles or the autonomic-innervated muscles

Vibrio cholerae mechanism of toxic action

-Cholera is an acute, diarrheal illness caused by infection of the intestine with the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. An estimated 3-5 million cases and over 100,000 deaths occur each year around the world. The infection is often mild or without symptoms, but can sometimes be severe. Approximately one in 20 (5%) infected persons will have severe disease characterized by profuse watery diarrhea, vomiting, and leg cramps. In these people, rapid loss of body fluids leads to dehydration and shock. Without treatment, death can occur within hours. -The cholera bacterium is usually found in water or food sources that have been contaminated by feces from a person infected with cholera. Cholera is most likely to be found and spread in places with inadequate water treatment, poor sanitation, and inadequate hygiene. -The cholera bacterium may also live in the environment in brackish rivers and coastal waters. Shellfish eaten raw have been a source of cholera, and a few persons in the United States have contracted cholera after eating raw or undercooked shellfish from the Gulf of Mexico.

Concepts of 'Community Design' and 'Urbanization'

-Community design became important after World War II when the ideal "American Dream" led to the process of suburbanization and the abundance of homes, jobs, and access to education. -Urbanization or growth within cities continued due to rapid birth rate and industrialization.

Emissions characteristics of coal-fired power plants

-Emissions data from the Reid Gardner Coal-Fired Power Plant in Moapa, NV illustrate the range of pollutants released during the combustion of coal: -Coal Consumption: 1.9 million tons/year -2006 Mercury Emissions: 71 pounds -2006 CO2 Emissions: 5,166,573 tons -2006 SO2 Emissions: 2,015 tons -2006 NOx Emissions: 8,643 tons Toxic Waste Data: -Chromium Waste: 39,259 pounds Air Release: 318 pounds Land Release (Landfill/Surface Impoundment/Well):38,941 pounds -Dioxin Waste: 3 grams Air Release: 3 grams -Lead Waste: 53,337 pounds Air Release: 341 pounds Land Release (Landfill/Well): 52,996 pounds

Contributions of different pathogen classes to food-related deaths

-Foodborne Illness is a major cause of morbidity (and occasionally mortality) in the United States and other countries of the world. -In the US, pathogens cause an estimated 2,718 deaths each year, of which 1,809 are attributable to foodborne transmission. -Bacteria account for 72% of deaths associated with foodborne transmission, Parasites for 21%, and Viruses for 7%.

Examples of 'Climate-Sensitive Health Outcomes'

-Heat stress -Air pollution -Extreme weather events -Water and food borne illness -Vectorborne illness ■Lyme Disease ■Hantavirus ■Dengue ■Malaria

Concept of the 'Energy Ladder'

-Humans have long used technology to harness potential energy sources, from draft animals to nuclear reactors. -The level of technological development determines the primary sources of energy that people employ, the efficiency with which they convert energy to productive work, and the extent to which they limit or control potentially harmful by-products. -This can be roughly illustrated by the energy ladder; as prosperity increases, societies tend to substitute cleaner, more efficient, and more convenient energy sources for the less costly but more polluting sources at the ladder's base.

International disparities in resource utilization rates

-If the entire world population were to have the same standard of living as the average American or Western European today, the equivalent of three worlds would be required to supply the needed resources at current rates of consumption and waste generation (UN DESA, 2008). -In the United States, 306 million people — less than 5 percent of the world's total population — consume several times that proportion of most global resources (Brown, Gardner, and Halweil, 1999 ; Markham, 2006). -The average person in the United States uses the energy equivalent of fifty - seven barrels of oil each year, compared to less than two barrels for the average Bangladeshi.

Definition of 'Particulate Air Pollution'

-In the simplest terms, particulate air pollution is anything solid or liquid suspended in the air. -It includes smoke, fumes, soot, and other combustion by-products, but also natural particles such as windblown dust, sea salt, pollen, and spores. -It includes primary particles coming directly out of exhaust stacks and tailpipes, but also can include secondary particles, such as sulfates and nitrates, which form from condensation of vaporized materials or from the by-products of the oxidation of gases in the atmosphere.

Identity of the 'other' anthropogenic greenhouse gas

-Methane -Sulfur

Classification of hazards and disasters

-Natural hazards may be further classified as meteorological or geophysical. -Technological hazards include those that are toxic, thermal, or mechanical. -industrial disasters may differ from acts of sabotage, warfare, and terrorism only in malicious intent

Pulmonary disorders associated with coal mining

-Nevertheless, studies have shown that up to 12% of coal miners develop one of several potentially fatal diseases (pneumoconiosis, progressive massive fibrosis, emphysema, chronic bronchitis, and accelerated loss of lung function).

Flavivirus basic classification criteria

-Nucleotide sequence: Which describes the 'evolutionary distance' between related viral strains, often represented as a 'phylogenetic tree' -Antigenicity: or immune responsiveness, relating to the (dis)similarity of specific viral proteins evoking immune response -Pathogenicity: or virulence, a measure of the infective potential of the virus -Geographic distribution: Where the virus strain is likely to be endemic -Ecological associations: The vectors and hosts associated with specific virus strains

Elements of cardiovascular health risk associated with particulate exposure

-Pulmonary oxidative stress & inflammation -Blood -Autonomic nervous system imbalance -Systematic oxidative stress & inflammatory response

General principles of disaster risk management

-Risk management is activity directed toward assessing, controlling and monitoring risks. Strategies for risk management include risk assessment and control measures; these in turn include transferring the risk to another party, avoiding the risk, reducing the negative effect of the risk, and accepting some or all of the consequences of a particular risk. -Disaster risk management applies the general principles of risk management to disasters. The figure to the right describes the components of disaster risk management, including both assessment and control. Disaster risk management is a comprehensive, all - hazard approach that entails developing and implementing strategies for each phase of the disaster. -Prevention -Mitigation -Preparedness -Response -Recovery

The top six pathogens contributing to food-borne disease mortality

-Salmonella (31%) -Listeria (28%) -Toxoplasma (21%) -Norwalk-like viruses (7%) -Campylobacter (5%) -E. coli O157:H7 (3%)

3 Key questions relating to anthropogenic climate change

1.) How well do we understand the climate system and our role in changing it. 2.) How well can we characterize the impacts of climate change? 3.) What are our future options?

Mechanism / chemical components of smog formation

-Smog is a mixture of pollutants, principally ground-level ozone, produced by chemical reactions in the air involving smog-forming chemicals. -It can be formed by anthropogenic and/or natural sources Basic Components of Smog: -NOx: Oxides of nitrogen -O3: Ozone -Free radicals: Reactive hydrocarbons, Reactive oxygen species

Definition and concept of 'Social Capital'

-Social capital refers to the social networks and resources within a community and the benefits that arise when interacting with community members. -Social capital is important to the well-being and mental health of the citizens. Community design can affect social capital in many ways including: •Longer commute times can lead to less time or will to interact with other and in social activities •The presence of "great good places" like bookstores, bars, and coffee shops give citizens places to meet and socialize. •Social capital affects housing type mixes, without this mix, people would have to move while they aged, and wouldn't be able to create community networks if their neighborhood wasn't suited for their age group.

Common causes of soil degradation

-Soil degradation is a widespread and growing problem, which contributes to decreased agricultural yields. -Causes of soil degradation include deforestation, overexploitation for domestic uses such as fencing and fuel wood, overgrazing, unsustainable agricultural practices, and conversion of arable land to residential and industrial uses.

Regions of the world considered to be 'water-stressed'

-South Asia -Eastern Asia -Middle and Southern Africa

Concept of the 'Air Quality Index (AQI)'

-The Air Quality Index (AQI) is used to provide the public with an indication of air quality in a local area on a daily basis. -It focuses on health effects you may experience within a few hours or days after breathing polluted air.

Concept of the 'Urban Heat Island Effect'

-The Urban Heat Island Effect is when air temperatures in cities can be 2°F to 10°F higher than the surrounding suburban and rural areas, due to absorption of heat by dark paved surfaces and buildings, lack of vegetation and trees, heat emitted from buildings, vehicles, and air conditioners, and reduced airflow around buildings. -Mitigation efforts including planting of trees and vegetation can reduce urban heat island effects.

Evidence for health risks associated with urban air pollution

-The association between traffic-related air pollution and childhood asthma may account for increase in asthma rates over the past decade -Toxic particulates from diesel fuels contribute to the increased rates of lung cancer for people who live near roadways. The risk increase is nearly 40%

Pathophysiology / clinical features of Lyme disease

-The first sign of infection is usually a circular rash called erythema migrans or EM. This rash occurs in approximately 70-80% of infected persons and begins at the site of a tick bite after a delay of 3-30 days. A distinctive feature of the rash is that it gradually expands over a period of several days, reaching up to 12 inches (30 cm) across. The center of the rash may clear as it enlarges, resulting in a bull's-eye appearance. It may be warm but is not usually painful. Patients also experience symptoms of fatigue, chills, fever, headache, and muscle and joint aches, and swollen lymph nodes. In some cases, these may be the only symptoms of infection. -Untreated, the infection may spread to other parts of the body within a few days to weeks, producing an array of discrete symptoms. These include loss of muscle tone on one or both sides of the face (called facial or "Bell's palsy), severe headaches and neck stiffness due to meningitis, shooting pains that may interfere with sleep, heart palpitations and dizziness due to changes in heartbeat, and pain that moves from joint to joint. Many of these symptoms will resolve, even without treatment. -After several months, approximately 60% of patients with untreated infection will begin to have intermittent bouts of arthritis, with severe joint pain and swelling. Large joints are most often affected, particularly the knees. In addition, up to 5% of untreated patients may develop chronic neurological complaints months to years after infection. These include shooting pains, numbness or tingling in the hands or feet, and problems with concentration and short term memory. -Most cases of Lyme disease can be cured with antibiotics, especially if treatment is begun early in the course of illness. However, a small percentage of patients with Lyme disease have symptoms that last months to years after treatment with antibiotics. These symptoms can include muscle and joint pains, arthritis, cognitive defects, sleep disturbance, or fatigue. The cause of these symptoms is not known. There is some evidence that they result from an autoimmune response, in which a person's immune system continues to respond even after the infection has been cleared.

Relative and absolute incidence of environmental disasters

-The incidence of environmental disasters, both natural and technological, is increasing worldwide (CRED, 2005; Noji, 1997). During the decade 1997 to 2006, 6,806 environmental disasters (not including wars, conflict- related famines, and epidemics) were reported to have killed 1.2 million people worldwide, affected 2.7 billion lives, and resulted in property damage exceeding $800 billion (IFRC, 2007). -Floods -Transport accidents -Windstorms

Factors contributing to increases in foodborne illness

-The incidence of foodborne illnesses has increased in industrialized nations. Some of the major reasons for this include: 1. Changes in agricultural and food processing methods 2. Increasing globalization in food distribution 3. Social and behavioral changes among the human population

Prominent factors explaining the increases in life expectancy in the early 20th century

-The increases in life expectancy that occurred in the first half of the 20th century in developed countries were the result of rapid declines in mortality, particularly infant and maternal mortality, as well as mortality caused by infectious diseases in childhood and early adulthood. -Access to better housing, sanitation and education, a trend to smaller families, growing incomes, and public health measures such as immunization against infectious diseases all contributed greatly to this epidemiological transition. In many developed countries, this shift started approximately 100 to 150 years ago. -In a number of countries, such as Japan, the transition started later but proceeded much more quickly. In many developing countries, the transition started even later and has not yet been completed. -In developed countries, improvements in life expectancy now come mainly from reductions in death rates among adults.

Definition of 'Zoning', and considerations in urban land use planning

-The practice of zoning, or the partitioning of land for specific use, is still used today. -With the rapid growth of cities and transportation, city planners began to depart from densities of 5 to 10 houses an acre to 2 to 3 houses per acre.

Automobile use and injury risks

-When considering the urbanization of areas in the U.S., one must consider the use of automobiles to be a potential hazard to the citizens of the community: 1. Automobile accidents are one of the top ten contributors to premature death in the U.S. (Foege, 2006) 2. States with lower population densities experience high rates of traffic fatalities per VMT (vechile miles traveled) (Clark an Cushing 2004). 3. Local roadway designs such as roundabouts, one-way streets , and speed bumps help alter driver behavior and reduce crash severity and likelihood (Bunn et al, 2003)

Physical activity, obesity, and urban design for the promotion of physical activity

-With urbanization on the rise, the option of a sedentary lifestyle is becoming a more common choice. -More than half of American adults are physically inactive on a regular basis, and over 1⁄4 reported no leisure-time physical activity (Macera et. al, 2003). -Designing for the promotion of physical activity: 1. The concept of Co-Location brings together things that are normally further from each other (schools, retail, offices), and promotes walking and bicycling. 2. Higher density development is an effective strategy to promote walking (TRB and IOM 2005) 3. Creating grid-like networks of sidewalks and paths increase physical activity (rather than long blocks and cul-de-sacs like in the suburbs)

Definition and implications of the 'Hygiene Hypothesis'

-by ridding the human immune system of interaction with (parasites), one loses the potential for key regulatory interactions on which normal immunity may have evolved a dependence. Implications: -Shift from hunter-gatherer lifestyle (human environment of evolutionary adaptedness; EEA) to the lifestyle of rich developed countries -Diminished input of harmless environmental organisms, and of helminths that must be tolerated -Diminished induction of DC and T

Principal causes of deforestation

1. Logging for fuel wood and construction 2. Slash-and-Burn farming 3. Mining and petroleum exploration 4. Cattle ranching and livestock grazing 5. Commercial agriculture 6. Infrastructure (e.g., road) development

Differences in energy use patterns in developed versus non-developed regions

1. More developed areas of the world have higher per capita energy consumption (and higher associated emissions per capita as well). 2. More developed areas rely disproportionately on cleaner forms of energy production that are higher on the energy ladder. 3. More developed regions rely more heavily on electricity, a more efficient mode of energy production. This translates to greater economic output per unit of energy input than countries in the developing world achieve (Grubler, Nakicenovic, and Jefferson, 1996 ). 4. Higher levels of development are associated with increased capacity and willingness to distribute health impacts both onto distant populations and to future generations (Holdren and Smith, 2000).

Types of FDA food safety monitoring programs

1. Raw agricultural produce, fish, dairy products and processed food: Levels of 397 pesticides (both parent compounds and breakdown products). 2. "Incidence or Level Monitoring": FDA tries to determine how often a certain pesticide is found on a particular crop. 3. "Total Diet Studies": analysis of pesticide residues that remain in a "typical meal." Information on what people eat or what is a "typical meal" is collected by the USDA's Nationwide Food Consumption Surveys.

Four symptoms of 'Environmental Distress Syndrome'

1. The reemergence of infectious diseases, such as cholera, typhoid, and dengue fever, and the emergence of new diseases such as drug-resistant tuberculosis. 2. The loss of biodiversity and the consequent loss of potential sources of new drugs and crops. 3. The growing dominance of generalist species, such as crows and Canada geese. 4. The decline in pollinators such as bees, birds, bats, butterflies, and beetles, which are intrinsic to the propagation of flowering plants.

Health effects of chronic noise exposure

Noise-induced hearing loss begins to occur with prolonged exposure to noises over 70 decibels. (WHO, n.d.) Although these levels are high, residential communities are exposed to urban traffic and what has been come to be known as noise pollution

Specific acute and chronic health effects of air pollutants

Acute Effects: -Irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat -Aching lungs -Bronchitis -Pneumonia -Wheezing -Coughing -Nausea -Headaches Chronic Effects: -Heart disease -Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease -Lung cancer

How 'Exposure', 'Sensitivity' and 'Adaptive Capacity' influence 'Vulnerability'

Adaptation includes changes in management activities, institutional settings, and infrastructure that enable effective responses to alterations in the environment.

Definition and common sources of 'Air Pollution'

Air pollution is a general term used to describe undesirable amounts of particulate or gaseous matter in the atmosphere. Air pollution can be natural or anthropogenic. It occurs naturally during volcano eruptions, forest fires, dust storms, from salt evaporation along the earth's coasts, and from biologics such as mold spores, pollen, and organic material from plants and animals .

Developmental transition of injury risks

Although injuries are major contributors to global morbidity and mortality in both developing and developed countries, a clear transition in injury risks occurs with a change in level of development. Injuries from fires, agricultural injuries, drownings, wood-acquisition injuries, and war-related violence dominate the early stages of development, whereas road traffic, intentional, and industrial injuries appear to increase with economic development.

Definitions and examples of stationary and mobile sources

Stationary Sources: -Electric generating plants -Factories and manufacturing complexes -Oil refineries -Chemical plants -Incinerators Mobile Sources: -On-road vehicles (e.g., cars, trucks, buses) -Off-road vehicles (e.g., dune buggies, snowmobiles) -Nonroad vehicles (e.g., airplanes, ships, trains)

Definition of the FDCA 'Delaney Clause'

Delaney Clause: "The Secretary of the Food and Drug Administration shall not approve for use in food any chemical additive found to induce cancer in man, or, after tests, found to induce cancer in animals."

Categorical differences in leading causes of death between 'Developing' and 'Developed' countries

Causes of death in developing countries: -HIV-AIDS -Lower respiratory infections -Ischaemic heart disease -Diarrhea -Cerebrovascular disease -Childhood diseases -Malaria -Tuberculosis -Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease -Measles Causes of death in developed countries: -Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease -Lower respiratory infections -Lung cancer -Car accident -Stomach cancer -Hypertensive heart disease -Tuberculosis -Suicide -Ischaemic heart disease -Cerebrovascular disease

'Structural Problems' in urban land use

Common structural problems in urban land use include: 1. Separation of land uses through zoning: Separating sources of employment and services can promote socioeconomic barriers. 2. Low density development: Limiting the density of households per acre in suburban and rural areas promotes urban sprawl. 3. Dispersion of activity centers: Segregating the 'urban jungle' from places that encompass nature. 4. Automobile-oriented transportation system: Parking lots, freeways, and roads discourage mode share (distribution of modes of transportation such as walking and biking). 5. Disinvestment in central cities: Middle and upper class families fleeing the city to live in the suburbs has led to urban areas concentrated with poverty, substandard living environments, and unemployment. Led to the birth of 'urban health' , which in turn became synonymous with 'health of the poor people'.

Components and health effects of diesel exhaust

Components: -A complex mixture of particles and gases; includes the element carbon, condensed hydrocarbon gases, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are known carcinogens. -Other constituents are hundreds of organic and inorganic compounds, some of which are regarded as toxic. Health Effects: -Epidemiologic evidence suggests that in comparison with nonexposed groups, two categories of workers (truck drivers and railroad crews) exposed directly to diesel exhaust have lung cancer incidence rates that are 20% to 40% higher. -The incidence of lung cancer increases, on average, about 33-47 percent above background levels in occupational exposures to diesel exhaust. There are some uncertainties about the magnitude of the increase because with lung cancer, the question of confounding by cigarette smoke is present (EPA Diesel-Health Report, 1999).

Definitions: 'Disaster', 'Emergency', 'Disaster Consequences', 'Disaster Impact'

Disaster: -a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society causing widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses that exceed the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources Emergency: -if a disruptive event does not exceed a community' s or society' s capacity to cope, it is classified as an emergency. Emergencies and disasters are thus part of a continuum of events that differ only in their degree of severity. Disaster Consequences: -loss of life, injury, disease, and other negative effects on human physical, mental and social well - being, together with damage to property, destruction of assets, loss of services, social and economic disruption, and environmental degradation

EPA Criteria Pollutants, and categories of Hazardous Air Pollutants

EPA Criteria Pollutants: -Oxides of Sulfur (SOx) -Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) -Carbon Monoxide (CO) -Lead (Pb) -Particulate Matter (PM) -Ozone (O3) Hazardous Air Pollutants: US Clean Air Act regulates 188 organic and inorganic HAPs which largely arise from industrial processes. Subcategories include: 1. Mobile source air toxics (21) 2. Urban air toxics (33) 3. Diesel Particulate Matter

Definitions of 'First', 'Second', and 'Third World'

First World: -The postindustrial countries of the First World are immersed in high technology, with glittering advances in electronics, medical research, genomic manipulation, fiber optics, synthetic materials, alloys, and fabrication processes. Second World: -The Second World countries are consumed by the desire to attain First World status. These countries feature rapid industrial, technological, and social change, with little concern for the attendant environmental pollution. Third World: -For the Third World countries most things are going wrong. They have limited or poor management of natural resources, high infant and maternal mortality rates, low literacy and education, political instability, corrupt political leaders and governmental institutions, untrained manpower and flight of capital, vandalism by military and law enforcement officers, civil strife, famine, deteriorated educational, medical, and business infrastructures, depleted agricultural soils, and a high burden of endemic and communicable disease morbidity and mortality.

Sources of human exposure to Salmonella spp.

Every year, approximately 40,000 cases of salmonellosis are reported in the United States. Because many milder cases are not diagnosed or reported, the actual number of infections may be thirty or more times greater. There are many different kinds of Salmonella bacteria. Salmonella serotype typhimurium and Salmonella serotype enteritidis are the most common in the United States. Salmonellosis is more common in the summer than winter.

Concept of the 'Water Poverty Index'

Freshwater, as a natural resource, represents a fundamental key to sustainable livelihoods - for health, economy and development. The water poverty index (WPI) is an aggregate index, describing the lack of freshwater. The index is calculated based on five components: resources, access, capacity, use, and environment, using indicators describing these. Access to freshwater is also obviously a limiting determinant of regional human populations.

Sequence of events linking 'Forcings' to 'Impacts'

Forcings>Physical Processes>Physical Responses>Biological Processes>Impacts

Theoretical basis of the 'Natural Greenhouse Effect'

GREENHOUSE EFFECT from human activities has warded off a glaciation that otherwise would have begun about 5,000 years ago. Early human agricultural activities produced enough greenhouse gases to offset most of the natural cooling trend during preindustrial times (yellow), warming the planet by an average of almost 0.8 degree Celsius. That early warming effect (a) rivals the 0.6 degree Celsius (b) warming measured in the past century of rapid industrialization (orange). Once most fossil fuels are depleted and the temperature rise caused by greenhouse gases peaks, the earth will cool toward the next glaciation - now thousands of years overdue.

Definition of 'Globalization'

Globalization might be defined as the increasing integration of economies around the world, with the movement of people (labor) and knowledge (technology) across international borders. Globalization can also be viewed as a series of interlocking economic, social, technological, political, and cultural changes emerging around the globe. It is a phenomenon that is shrinking space and increasing the speed of interaction, changing our views of the world and of ourselves, and breaking down national and cultural barriers.

Practice of 'Fracking' for natural gas

Hydraulic fracturing is a technique used to create fractures that extend from the well bore into rock or coal formations. These fractures allow the oil or gas to travel more easily from the rock pores, where the oil or gas is trapped, to the production well.

Filovirus vector biology

In humans and monkeys, the hallmark of filoviral disease is unchecked viral growth that coincides with a relatively wide range of possible disease manifestations including fever, malaise, diarrhoea and vomiting, severe liver damage and various coagulation deficits that cause filoviruses to be categorized among the viral haemorrhagic fevers. The worst of the symptoms, including haemorrhage in a few individuals, seem to flow from a 'cytokine storm', a profuse release of pro-inflammatory cytokines.

Endemism of malaria in Subsaharan Africa; relationship to sickle cell anemia

In the merozoite stage of its life cycle the malaria parasite lives inside red blood cells, and its metabolism changes the internal chemistry of the red blood cell. Infected cells normally survive until the parasite reproduces, but if the red cell contains a mixture of sickle and normal haemoglobin, it is likely to become deformed and be destroyed before the daughter parasites emerge. Thus, individuals heterozygous for the mutated allele, known as sickle-cell trait, may have a low and usually unimportant level of anaemia, but also have a greatly reduced chance of serious malaria infection. This is a classic example of heterozygote advantage.

Definition of 'Climate Forcings'

Natural and anthropogenic processes that 'force' climate to change

General prevalence of Lyme, Plague, Malaria

Lyme: -The Lyme disease bacterium, Borrelia burgdorferi (a spirochaete) normally lives in mice, squirrels and other small animals. It is transmitted among these animals - and to humans - through the bites of certain species of ticks. In the northeastern and north-central United States, the black-legged tick (or deer tick, Ixodes scapularis) transmits Lyme disease. -In the Pacific coastal United States, the disease is spread by the western black- legged tick (Ixodes pacificus). Other major tick species found in the United States have not been shown to transmit Borrelia burgdorferi. Plague: -Human plague in the United States has occurred as mostly scattered cases in rural areas (an average of 5 to 15 persons each year). -Globally, the World Health Organization reports 1,000 to 3,000 cases of plague every year. Most of these non- U.S. cases occur in impoverished rural environments that are heavily rat-infested. Malaria: -When an infected mosquito pierces a person's skin to take a blood meal, sporozoites in the mosquito's saliva enter the bloodstream and migrate to the liver. Within 30 minutes of being introduced into the human host, they infect hepatocytes, multiplying asexually and asymptomatically for a period of 6-15 days

Major sources / sectors of energy supply and demand in the United States

Nearly 80% of human energy use is in the form of oil, gas, and coal, the fossil fuels that together have grown in use exponentially since the industrial revolution, and exert substantial health risks at various points in their fuel cycles. Although various energy sources are used to convert mechanical or thermal energy into electrical energy, the primary source of electricity to this day is coal.

Mechanism / chemical components of ozone formation

Ozone is formed by the photochemical reaction of oxygen (O2) with Volatile Organic Contaminants (VOCs) and oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) in the presence of sunlight

Definitions: 'Primary and secondary prevention' of disaster risk, 'structural and non-structural' measures, 'Mitigation'

Primary Prevention: -seeks to prevent adverse events (disaster, disease, injury) from occurring. Secondary Prevention: -of environmental disaster impact seeks to minimize the adverse effects of events that have already occurred. Structural: -the primary prevention of environmental disaster risk relies heavily on hazard avoidance through structural measures. These measures include modification of the physical environment through architectural design, engineering controls, and construction methods and materials in order to prevent hazard exposure Nonstructural: -(for example, land use strategies, policies, and laws and public awareness raising, training, and education) may be the most effective means of preventing many geophysical disaster impacts. Mitigation: -serves to reduce population vulnerability by reducing population exposure, as well as susceptibility/vulnerability, to disaster hazards

How acid rain is formed

Refers to the precipitation of acidic compounds formed when components of air pollution (e.g., SO2 and NOx) interact with other components in the air such as water, oxygen, and oxidants. Emissions of SO2 and NOx are produced by installations such as electric utility plants. Creates abnormally high levels of acidity that are potentially damaging to the environment, wildlife, and human health.

Principles of 'Smart Growth' and 'Universal Design'

Smart Growth: 1. Mixing land uses 2. Creating walkable neighborhoods 3. Providing a variety of transportation choices 4. Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and critical environmental areas. 5. Create range of housing opportunities an choices. Housing choices independent of income. 6. Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration 7. Strengthen and direct development toward existing communities. 8. Take advantage of compact building designs. 9. Make development decisions, predictable, fair, and cost effective. -Universal design refers to the design of products and environments to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design. Smart growth helps cities promote universal design. 1. Equitable use 2. Flexibility in use 3. Simple and inutitive use 4. Perceptible information 5. Tolerance for error 6. Low physical effort 7. Size and space for approach and use

Concept and consequences of 'Urban Sprawl'

Social Effects: 1. Increased cost to the public since roads and infrastructure are constantly being improved outside of urban area 2. Decrease in social capital since bigger properties are claimed, isolation occurs between neighbors, diminishing their social contact Health Effects: 1. Heavy dependence on automobiles can lead to: - Inactivity, obesity, and increased hypertension (Ewing et. al, 2003) - Air pollution and potential noise pollution 2. Displacement of wildlife and destruction of surrounding habitats

Characteristics of current patterns of energy use

Supply Source: -Petroleum -Natural Gas -Coal -Renewable Energy -Nuclear Electric Power Demand Sectors: -Transportation -Industrial -Residential and Commercial -Electric Power

Precepts of sustainable design

Sustainable development refers to initiatives by cities, nations and their planners to decrease rapid use / impact of use of natural resources, and to contend with population growth and global climate change.

Be able to explain the essence of the 'Ruddiman Hypothesis'

The 'Ruddiman hypothesis' challenges the conventional assumption that greenhouse gases released by human activities have perturbed the earth's delicate climate only within the past 200 years. ■ New evidence suggests instead that our human ancestors began contributing significant quantities of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere thousands of years earlier by clearing forests and irrigating fields to grow crops. ■ As a result, human beings kept the planet notably warmer than it would have been otherwise - and possibly even averted the start of a new ice age.

Definition of the 'Built Environment'

The Built Environment refers to the part of the environment formed and shaped by humans, including buildings, structures, landscaping, roads, signs, trails, and utilities.

Basic clinical aspects of flavivirus infection

The main clinical features of our patients are illustrated. Weak limbs at the peak of paralysis are darkened. Degree of darkness corresponds to the severity of weakness. Duration of weakness and characteristics (age [years] and sex [F=female, M=male]) are listed below each patient.

Driving factors of urbanization

The rapid urban growth in the developing world is being driven by people who are fleeing collapsing rural economies, lack of rural infrastructure and services, landlessness, and lack of rural employment opportunities. These push and pull factors will continue to drive urbanization, especially in developing countries. Young people in particular are leading the flight to the cities.

Factors contributing to 'Undernutrition' and 'Overnutrition'

Undernutrition: -Traditions and beliefs that constrain an individual's food choices. In many African cultures, pregnant and postpartum women are limited to certain foods, and other foods (including eggs, onions, certain seafood, and many green, leafy vegetables) are strictly forbidden. -Reduced capacity for local food production, owing to unfavorable land titles that debar a majority of the population from owning land. -Declining investments in agricultural research, irrigation, and rural infrastructure. -Uneducated farmers who cannot adopt advanced technologies and crop management techniques to achieve higher rates of return on their lands. -Conversion of forests to cropping and grazing lands, leading to loss of hunting grounds (game is an important source of animal protein in traditional diets) and reducing the availability of wild fruits and vegetables that used to be traditional food staples. -Urbanization and associated roadways that destroy arable lands and suck away the able - bodied workers while placing excessive demand on the food supply from rural communities. -Inadequate food - handling and distribution systems, which result in massive preharvest and postharvest losses. -Lack of food storage and preservation capacity, making some critical dietary sources of essential microelements seasonal commodities. Overnutrition: -Policies regarding local production and processing, import regulations, and subsidies have also altered the relative balance between the kinds and costs of imported foods and the kinds and costs of locally grown foods. Diets are shifting toward a higher fat content (meats and fat - rich foods are considered status symbols of economic advancement), more refined carbohydrates, less fiber, more salt, and more diversity. -This changing pattern in dietary habits and physical inactivity has given rise to overnutrition, with attendant hypertension, hyperlipidemias, overweight, and obesity, which are in turn risk factors for chronic diseases such as cancers, heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and mental illness, especially in rapidly growing urban populations.

Difference between 'Urbanicity' and 'Urbanization'

Urbanicity: -the extent of urban population concentration Urbanization: -the process over time of urban growth

Vector biology of West Nile Virus and Dengue

West Nile Virus: 1. Infected overwintering female mosquitoes. Vertical transmission of WNV in Culex can occur when female mosquitoes pass the virus to their progeny. This is one means of overwintering survival. 2. Continued transmission. Bird located in warmer latitudes continue to act as reservoirs throughout the year. 3. Chronic infections in birds. Affected bird species can become chronically infected with virus, serving as over winter reservoirs for the virus. 4. Migratory birds. Several warblers are highly susceptible to WNV infection, raising the possibility that virus could overwinter at southern latitudes and then be transported north each spring. Dengue: -Dengue viruses are transmitted to humans through the bites of infective female Aedes mosquitoes. Mosquitoes generally acquire the virus while feeding on the blood of an infected person. After virus incubation for 8-10 days, an infected mosquito is capable, during probing and blood feeding, of transmitting the virus, to susceptible individuals for the rest of its life. Infected female mosquitoes may also transmit the virus to their offspring by transovarial (via the eggs) transmission, but the role of this in sustaining transmission of virus to humans has not yet been delineated. -Humans are the main amplifying host of the virus, although studies have shown that in some parts of the world monkeys may become infected and perhaps serve as a source of virus for uninfected mosquitoes. The virus circulates in the blood of infected humans for two to seven days, at approximately the same time as they have fever; Aedes mosquitoes may acquire the virus when they feed on an individual during this period.

Concepts of Design' in urban land use planning

With both inner city populations and surrounding, suburban populations growing, it is important to consider the following considerations in urban design: • The decisions made that affect the placement of functions such as homes, industry, and stores is called land use. • Transportation is a main consideration when moving goods, people, and services from place to place. This includes the building of roads, bike paths, buses, railways etc. • Community design may also address land conservation (preservation of land in its natural state), parks and recreation, historic preservation, and landscape architecture (design and management of public spaces).

Relationship between socioeconomic status and food selection

With lower incomes, simple carbohydrates are becoming cheaper to buy, thus becoming a heavy part of diet, and potentially being an adverse effect to health.

Relationship between urban design and mental health

•Noise can be a long-term source of stress for nearby neighborhoods and can lead to sleeplessness, anxiety, and other mental disorders. •Sprawling communities can lead to social isolation and depression (Kunstler, 1993). •In communities dependent on automobiles for transportation, frequent commuting in heavy traffic has been linked to increased blood pressure, back pain, cardiovascular disease, and self-reported stress (Koslowsky et. al 1993) •Road rage, or over aggressive driving and impulsive behavior, has been attributed to stressful commutes (Rathbone and Huckabee, 1999) •Parks and green areas promote stress reduction and relaxation.

Individuals at risk for contraction of listeria monocytogenes

•Pregnant women - They are about 20 times more likely than other healthy adults to get listeriosis. About one-third of listeriosis cases happen during pregnancy. •Newborns - Newborns rather than the pregnant women themselves suffer the serious effects of infection in pregnancy. •Persons with weakened immune systems •Persons with cancer, diabetes, or kidney disease •Persons with AIDS - They are almost 300 times more likely to get listeriosis than people with normal immune systems. •Persons who take glucocorticosteroid medications •The elderly

Basic facts on transmission and management of rabies

•Rabies is widely distributed across the globe. More than 55 000 people die of rabies each year. About 95% of human deaths occur in Asia and Africa. •Most human deaths follow a bite from an infected dog. Between 30% to 60% of the victims of dog bites are children under the age of 15. •Wound cleansing and immunizations, done as soon as possible after suspect contact with an animal and following WHO recommendations, can prevent the onset of rabies in virtually 100% of exposures. •Once the signs and symptoms of rabies start to appear, there is no treatment and the disease is almost always fatal. •Globally, the most cost-effective strategy for preventing rabies in people is by eliminating rabies in dogs through animal vaccinations.

Routes of exposure to Toxoplasma gondii

•eating undercooked meat of animals harboring tissue cysts . •consuming food or water contaminated with cat feces or by contaminated environmental samples (such as fecal-contaminated soil or changing the litter box of a pet cat) •blood transfusion or organ transplantation . •transplacentally from mother to fetus