Clinical Psychology Exam 2

Fluid Intelligence

-Ability to solve problems without drawing on prior experience or formal learning -Ability to solve novel problems -Is innate intellectual potential someone has

What are the differences in types of questions that are utilized in interview settings?

-Open Questions -Close Questions -Mixed-Type

Self-Serving Attributional Bias

Any cognitive or perceptual process that is distorted by the need to maintain and enhance self-esteem, or the tendency to perceive oneself in an overly favorable manner.

Semi-Structured Interviews: Definition

Interviews with a specific format for asking questions and a specific sequence in which questions are asked

Limitations of Computer Generated Interpretative Reports

-Basically, the computer generated reports are based on group-level data research, so the psychologist has to examine the relevance of the interpretations. -Risks and cautionary statements regarding interpretation -Computer generated interpretive reports are based on 'averages' and may not relate to your individual client's presentation -Because CBIs are based on research using group-level data. The clinician needs to review the CBI and select only those narrative statements that accurately describe the patient in question. -The psychologist must examine the relevance of any statement, given the reasons for the assessment. -In most jurisdictions, the regulatory bodies for psychologists have clear guidelines on the use of CBIs in psychological assessment. -Typically, these include the need to ensure the relevance of the interpretations to the patients, and to clearly identify any statements that come directly from the computer report and that are the sole source of information for a specific point or conclusion. -Thus, an assessment report is not considered appropriate or responsible in routine practice.

Therapy Objectives

-Guide/promote psych change -Help client figure out the problem -Make sure info enough for whole time (long-term)

Limitations that Should be Considered When Clients Receive Feedback on their Assessment Results

-Maybe longer start to begin the whole process --Long-term though it should be better because the accuracy of diagnosis and treatment plan would work better

The Psychometric Robustness of Cognitive Tests

-The brain-based skills and mental processes needed to carry out any task and have more to do with mechanisms of how you learn, remember, and pay attention -Not heavily focused on the actual knowledge you have learned -Geared more towards the environment, meaning that cognitive capacity can change over time -Used to screen for mild cognitive impairments

The Stance of the World Health Organization on Mental Health Promotion

Defines Mental health promotion activities as those designed to increase well being and resilience

The Role of Culture on Personality Assessment

Due to the fact that most countries are multicultural, personality measures must be relevant and unbiased across cultural and ethnic groups

Computer Generated Interpretative Reports

Reports generated by the computer programs that match a patient's general pattern of responses on a psychological test to summaries of research evidence about the typical characteristics of people with the same pattern of test responses

Unstructured Assessment Interviews: Definition

The psychologist decides what to ask and follow up on as the interview unfolds

Crystallized Intelligence

What we have learned in life, both formal education and general life experiences

Health Promotion Within the Context of Prevention: 3 Approaches

**Health promotion within the context of prevention is anything that is designed to increase well being and resilience -Universal Preventive Interventions -Selective Preventive Interventions -Indicated Preventive Interventions

The Basic Elements of a Case Formulation

-A description of the patient that provides information on his or her life situation, current problems, and a set of hypotheses linking psychosocial factors with the patient's clinical condition. -Positives Include --Provides a way of understanding connections between patient's various problems --Provides guidance on the type of treatment to consider (including whether the treatment should be individual, family, couple, or group) --Predicts the patient's future functioning if treatment is not sought and how functioning will be different if treatment is successful --Provides options to consider if difficulties are encountered in implementing and following through treatment --Includes options outside of psychological services for patient to consider --Provides alternative treatment options to consider if initial treatment is unsuccessful

Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness Personality Inventory: NEO-PI

-A measure of personality assessment based on the 5 factor model. --Neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness -It has 240 items (as opposed to the 567 on the MMPI or 195 on the MCMI). -Facilitate a comprehensive and detailed assessment of normal adult personality

The Prevention Programs that are Most Beneficial to Disadvantaged Pre-School Children (Know the Research Findings that Support These Interventions )

-A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of preschool prevention programs provided encouraging data indicating that positive effects of intensive preschool interventions for children who are disadvantaged in multiple ways are sustained in the short, medium, and long term. -Not surprisingly, the longer and more intense the intervention, the greater the gains.

Content (or Construct) Approach

-A method of test construction that involves developing items specifically designed to tap the construct being assessed -A more current method that is used today --Ex: When updating the MMPI, data was collected from 2,500 American adults. Extensive data analysis led to the elimination of some old and new items. The first 370 items on the test contained all of the original validity and clinical scales, with the remaining items providing information for a range of additional scales designed to supplement the information available from the original MMPI scale.

Empirical Criterion-Keying

-A method of test construction that involves the generation and analysis of a pool of items. -Those items that discriminate between two clearly defined groups are retained in the scale. --Ex: This was used with the first MMPI. These researchers used patients will mental disorders and a comparison group. Based on the scores between the two, some items were dropped.

Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic

-A phenomenon wherein an individual basis their initial ideas and responses on one point of information and the makes changes driven by that starting point. -Initial conditions or characteristics determine a starting point for considering the nature of an individual or task (such as using the dealer's price when negotiating to buy a car). In clinical contexts this means that, for example, first impressions may serve as the (possibly inaccurate) basis for considering and integrating all subsequent information gathered about a person.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory: MMPI

-A self report measure with 567 items. -These items are all true or false questions. -This is in opposition to the NEO-PI which is more focused on free response. -The MMPI-A is for adolescence and the MMPI-2 is for adults. -It takes 60-90 minutes to administer as opposed to the MCMI which takes 25-30 minutes to administer. -Can be administered to those 18 years or older -Written at a reading level for grades 6-8

The Purpose of the Test of Memory Malingering (TOMM) and how Psychologists use it in Cognitive Assessment

-A test specifically designed to evaluate possible malingering. -Specifically, it was designed to assess whether an individual with established or suspected neurological impairments is exaggerating his or her memory deficits. -This test has been demonstrated to accurately detect almost half of individuals attempting to simulate memory problems—a noteworthy outcome, given the relatively low base rate of this behavior.

Open Questions

-Allow a person to provide elaborate answers and cannot be answered with a simple yes or no --Gives a more complex answer and does not suggest a particular response is required --May make the client give a long tangential story that may be of limited relevance in which case the psychologist must direct the client back to the topic at hand ----Ex: Who lives in your house?

Belief in the Law of Small Numbers

-Also known as gambler's fallacy -Results drawn from small samples are likely to be more extreme and less consistent than those obtained from large samples -The mistaken belief that, if something happens more frequently than normal during a given period, it will happen less frequently in the future.

Hindsight Bias

-Also known as the knew-it-all-along phenomenon -The common tendency for people to perceive events that have already occurred as having been more predictable than they actually were before the events took place. -Most decisions (including clinical decisions) must be made without the benefit of all the pertinent information. After a decision has been made and, as a consequence, a certain course of action has been taken, new information may become available.

Gathering Information

-Attend to both verbal and non-verbal communication -Provide structure and guidance -Pursue a line of questioning --When to ask open vs. closed questions --Problem define here (frequency, intensity, duration)! ----Frequency: How often does this happen? Are there times when it is better or worse? ----Intensity: How hard is it to do? What is the effect? ----Duration?: When did this start? How long has it been going on? -Other Questions --Ex: Tell me more about... --Ex: I want to be sure I understand...

Self-Report Tests

-Based on idea that we are good sources of information about ourselves -One of the most common used measures -Can involve measures of psychopathology and measures of normal personality --Many measures available that assess a wide range of psychopathological conditions (including disordered personality characteristics) ----The most famous is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-MMPI-2 and MMPI-2-RF -There are also measures of normal personality available (including dozens of checklists)

Hierarchical Models

-Based on the assumption that there are different levels of factors, with the higher-order or primary factors composed of lower-order or secondary factors -Includes fluid versus crystallized intelligence

Regression to the Mean

-Because of the nature of measurement error, a person who obtains an extreme score on a test at one point in time is likely to obtain a less extreme score when next taking the test. -It assumes that something has returned to normal because of corrective actions taken while it was abnormal. -This fails to account for natural fluctuations.

Inattention to Base Rates

-Believe that a certain pattern of responses on a test is indicative of a specific diagnosis and supports this belief with information non some relevant cases -If presented with related base rate information (i.e. generic, general information) and specific information (information pertaining only to a certain case), the mind tends to ignore the former and focus on the latter.

Social Conversation

-Can take place anywhere -May be overhead by others -Variable duration of time it can take place over -Details may be repeated in other conversations -The purpose is relationship maintenance -Allows free-flowing according to a person's interest -Can be reciprocal (something similar happened to me) -Each person waits for an opening to make a comment (now that you mention...) -Maintenance of relationship takes precedence -Commonly avoids painful topics -Participants rarely take notes -They are not documented and not recorded

Mixed-Type

-Can use both open and closed questions -Usually, a therapist will begin a topic of discussion with an open ended question (can you tell me what it was like when you first began to experience these symptoms?) and follow up with closed questions that clarify details of the response

Protective Factors

-Characteristics (individual and/or environment) that make a person less likely to develop a problem -Influences ---Individual factors: easy temperament, school achievement --School context: prosocial peer group, responsible/helpful --Family/social: supportive caring parents, strong family norms/values --Life events & situations: adequate housing/income --Community & cultural: strong cultural identity/ethnic pride

Risk Factors

-Characteristics of the individual or the environment that render a person more vulnerable to the development of a problem or disorder, or that are associated with more severe symptoms -Influences --Individual factors: difficult temperament, poor social skills/low self-esteem --School context: bullying, peer rejection --Family/social: parental isolation/single parent, harsh/inconsistent discipline, parental abuse/neglect -Life events & situations: abuse, poverty, unemployment, poor housing conditions -Community & cultural: socioeconomic disadvantage, isolation

Closed Questions

-Closed Questions: Questions that can be answered with a single word (eg. yes/no) -These questions are brief, less ambiguous answers, allowing the rapid coverage of many topics --Ex: Does your dad live with you?

How do Psychologists use the MMPI-2 'Code Types' for Diagnosis

-Code types: Summary codes for the highest two clinical scale elevations on the MMPI scales -Code type information serves as the foundation for generating a hypothesis about the client

How Do Psychologists use Collateral Data to Assist in Case Conceptualization

-Collateral data is additional data such as medical records, police reports, pharmacy records, mental health records,and school records. -Collateral contacts may be physicians and therapists, family members, friends -This is important because most tests are self report and this is outside that -Client may not accurately remember information or be unwilling to provide details

Assessment Objectives

-Collect info → formulate diagnosis then case → determine treatment -Review past and presenting problems of client -Make sure enough info is gathered for at least one to two sessions (brief)

Establish and Maintain a Professional Relationship

-Convey respect, genuineness, and empathy -It's important to consider the cultural context and avoid microagressions. -Build trust -Do not be judgy

The Different Approaches to Test Construction

-Empirical Criterion-Keying -Construct Approach

The General Framework with Which a Clinical Interview Begins

-Establish and maintain a professional relationship -Gathering information -Encourage client to ask questions about services/follow-up -NOTE: The above specific assessment objectives and specific therapy objectives are different

The Three Dominant Theoretical Models of Intelligence

-Factor Models -Hierarchical Models -Information Processing Model

Factor Models

-Factor models involve two or more factors that are postulated to be at more or less the same structural level. -Spearman 'g' and 's' (Factor Analysis) --g: General intelligence ----It is universal inborn ability. ----It varies from individual to individual and helps in different mental operations. ----It is used in everyday activities. ----G factor influences the performance on all mental tasks. --s: Specific intellectual abilities ----Every individual possess some specific abilities and usually gets success in the same. (like Singing, Painting...) ----People can also have more than one special abilities in varying degrees. ----One form of specific ability may not help in other one. -Thurstone: 7 Primary Abilities -Guilford: Rejected Spearman's model

Steps to Translate a Personality Measures

-First, items are translated into the second language, this version is translated back into the initial language by a second translator, and the two versions are compared. --This procedure is known as back translation. -Second, pilot testing should be conducted with the translated measure to ensure there are no problems with the comprehension of items. -Third, evidence of good reliability should be obtained on the translated measure. -Fourth, scores on the measure should be restandardized using norms specific to the translated measure. -Fifth, construct validation efforts should be undertaken to determine whether the instrument measures the same psychological qualities in both languages.

Information Processing Models

-Focuses less on the organization of types of intelligence and more on the identification of the processes and operations that reflect how information is handled by the brain. -Includes -Sternberg's triarchic theory -Gardner's multiple intelligences

The Logical Errors that Psychologists Might Engage in

-Fundamental attribution error -Inattention to base rates -Belief in the law of small numbers -Regression to the Mean -Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic -Hindsight Bias -Confirmatory Bias -Self-serving attributional bias

For Personality Assessment, Identify How Psychologists Deal with Circumstances in Which a Measure Has Not Been Validated on the Group in which a Client Belongs

-Haynes, Smith, and Hunsley suggest that clinical psychologists should: --Use measures that are psychometrically sound for people who come from the same ethnic group as the client --Consult published norms relevant to client's ethnic group when interpreting results --Adopt multiple assessment methods to minimize errors that might be associated with any method or test -If the test is not standardized: then psychologist won't report test scores and just use the test as an aid in generating hypothesis (ONLY) about client functioning

How Psychologists Assess Cultural and Linguistic Factors

-Immigration History --Length of time residing in the country. --Circumstances surrounding migration from country of origin (e.g., immigration for economic reasons, refugee). --Current legal status in the country. -Contact with Other Cultural Groups --Ethnic composition of the area in which the client lives. --Extent to which client stays within the area in which he or she lives. --Frequency of changes in residence and impact on the client. -Acculturative Status --Cultural norms, behaviours, and values. --Exposure-adherence to traditional culture and exposure-adherence to the dominant culture. -Acculturative Stress --Impact of acculturation on client (i.e., stress and distress). -Socioeconomic Status --Financial resources (e.g., family income), --Interpersonal resources (e.g., educational level), --Non-material resources (e.g., family structure). -Language

MCMI

-It has 195 items which are all true/false responses (similar to the MMPI but not to the NEO-PI). -It can be administered to those who are 18 and older -Requires a reading level of the 5th grade -It takes 25-30 minutes to administer.

Semi-Structured Interviews: Positives

-It is a somewhat shorter interview designed to cover disorders most commonly encountered in clinical settings -Flexibility in follow up questions and flexibility in order of questions -Based on initial client response: Interviewer uses follow up questions that confirm or rule out possible diagnoses -Address any clinical issue but most provide diagnostic information -The most comprehensive interview, covering most of the DSM-5 diagnoses

Objective Tests

-Measuring a person's characteristics independently of the taker's bias or personal beliefs. -Mostly self-report data is used -The results of such tests are generally more reliable than subjective (self-report) or projective (expose unconscious perceptions) models. -Tests that are scored objectively, always using the same scoring system --The patient is an object, no personalization -There is a standardized checklist of symptoms based off of normative values from others

The Limitations in using the Case Formulation Approach

-Must accurately detect patterns in the wealth of data gathered during as assessment, including patterns attributed to cultural factors. --Can be difficult -Bad decision making: Overconfidence in one's own wisdom and experience may lead to a premature conclusion that fails to take into account all relevant data.

Universal Preventive Interventions

-Population wide intervention --Ex: hazards of smoking ad campaigns, 'this is your brain on drugs.." --Ex: A media awareness campaign on the dangers of drinking and driving

The Methods that Psychologists use to Establish Premorbid IQ

-Premorbid IQ: Intellectual functioning prior to an accident or the onset of a neurological decline -Psychologists have developed relatively effective strategies for making these estimates by... --Consulting the client's achievement records --Testing with measures of ability that are relatively insensitive to decline --Paying close attention to the intelligence scale subtests that are least affected by neurological impairment. -Progress has also been made in using demographic variables and scores for subtests of intelligence scales to predict premorbid IQ.

How are Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence Related to IQ Testing?

-Raymond Cattell, the creator of these two general factors of intelligence, came up with those factors because he felt existing intelligence tests were too verbally focused. -Today, the overall IQ score is based on a combination of these two scales. --Ex: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) measures fluid intelligence on the performance scale and crystallized intelligence on the verbal scale.

The Elements of the Risk Reduction Model of Prevention

-Risk reduction model: An approach to prevention that reduces risks and promotes protective factors. -Discusses risk factors and protective factors -Designed to help at-risk individuals from developing a problem or disorder. -Influences both "within" and "outside" the person --Individual factors, school/work context, family/social factors, life events and situations, community and cultural factors

The Psychometric Robustness of Intelligence Tests

-Robustness is reduced test bias and measurement error; fair, adequate normative data gathered, both reliable and valid -Intelligence is a person's global capacity to act purposely to think in a rational manner and to deal effectively with his or her environment. -These tests strive to assess an individuals mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others using numerical statistics --Is more focused on comparing people to one another -Stays relatively stable

Microaggressions

-Slights, misunderstandings, and unwarranted assumptions on the part of the psychologist -These can happen based on ethnic stereotypes and can have substantial negative impact on the alliance with clients and their overall therapy experience --Ex: Orthodox Jewish might not shake hand of person of opposite sex, it would be a microaggression to interpret this as social withdrawal, lack of engagement, or surliness --Ex: Mr. Wong is actually a very good driver

Selective Preventive Interventions

-Targeted to at risk populations --Use of protective masks for healthcare employees at risk of exposure to contagious diseases

Indicated Preventive Interventions

-Targeted to people who don't meet criteria for a diagnosis, but have some symptoms --Ex: Someone who was exposed to Ebola may have to be quarantined --Ex: Protect nurses in hospital who come in contact with disease

The Uses and Limitations of the Rorschach Test

-Test takers report what they see in ambiguous stimuli. -Clinicians sometimes "personalize" scoring. -The "Comprehensive system" is the principal scoring system. -Scoring reliability is questionable. -Concern that projective tests like the Rorschach over-pathologized normal behaviors. -Attention to the basic test construction objectives of standardization, reliability, validity, and norms, which has led to long-standing concerns about the quality and utility of many projective tests and, clinical judgment

Projective Tests

-Tests requiring drawings or a response to ambiguous stimuli, based on the assumption that responses reveal information about personality structure. --Patient is projecting their feelings onto the expert -Most projective tests used in clinical settings do not have standardized administration, scoring, or interpretation guidelines, and only the Rorschach has normative data -Divided into 5 categories: --Association techniques (what does the stimuli look like --Completion techniques (sentence completion) --Arrangement / selection (color test / ranking) Expression techniques (handwriting analysis) -Possible Problems with projective tests --Many concerns about standardization (or clinicians deviating from standardized procedures for administration and scoring) and availability of appropriate norms --Considerable variability in the extent to which there are reliability and validity data supporting the test/technique ----Sometimes there appears to be supporting data, but research studies may use different stimuli or scoring systems than what are typically used by clinicians

Unstructured Assessment Interviews: Positives

-The goal is to create a safe environment designed to make the client more at ease to talk about issues that are troubling him or her -The assessment is conducted free from disruptions --Offices are soundproofed to limit distracting background noises -Since an assessment interview is not a regular conversation, the client may feel more at ease in discussing painful or embarrassing issues they would not be comfortable disclosing to friends. -Theoretical orientation and training determine the extent to which he or she explicitly directs the session, the manner in which the questions are asked, and the topics that are covered -The way a psychologist questions the client (as in open and closed questions) -Psychologists can ask difficult to answer questions that are more easily answered by clients because they are given time to pause and reflect.

Cultural Blind Spots

-The information and practices embedded within our own cultural behavior and practices—our culture, mind, action, or motivation—that we take for granted and typically overlook when paying attention elsewhere, thus risk neglecting. -Psychologists must not assume that communication patterns and styles are universal --Ex: too much eye contact may be intimidating to some cultures and it would be an error to interpret an averted gaze as evidence of avoidance -Psychologists must be aware of potential differences and ask clients to explain ways that things work in their cultural group

How Does the "Number Needed to Treat" apply to Prevention?

-The number of people who need to receive the intervention in order to prevent one person from developing the condition -Ex: The well-known practice of regular use of Aspirin to lower the risk of heart attack, for which the number needed to treat is 1,667 (Antithrombotic Trialists, ATT). That means that for every 1,667 people who regularly take Aspirin, one person will be saved from having a heart attack. As you can see, this commonly used daily prevention strategy must be used by many people in order to have an effect on a single person. As a comparison, an alternative strategy to reduce the likelihood of heart attacks is a Mediterranean diet that is rich in olive and other nut oils, for which the NNT is 61.

The Importance of Written Reports

-The report serves as a record of assessment that can be used for legal purposes, agencies, professionals, client, etc. -They focus on treatment plans and psychological functioning issues -Identifies common themes, integrating the findings across assessment procedures.

Semi-Structured Interviews: Negatives

-The shortness of the interview may leave out crucial information to aid in making a correct diagnosis -Even if the interviews address many clinical issues, it is limited to mostly diagnostic information which may also leave out crucial information -Since the interview is very structured, it may be hard for a client to discuss things they find important that fall outside of the structure.

Fundamental Attribution Error

-The tendency to overestimate the influence of personality traits to underestimate the influence of situational effects on the person's behavior. -People tend to emphasize the agent's internal characteristics, rather than external factors, in explaining other people's behavior.

Confirmatory Bias

-The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses. -Once a clinical hunch has been formed, it is tempting to gather information to support it. However, in testing a hypothesis it is important to evaluate evidence both for and against the hypothesis.

The Limits of Confidentiality for Psychologists

-There are many situations in which the psychologist is legally obliged to break confidentiality by disclosing information provided by the patient to another person or agency. --When a person's safety is at risk --Child protection laws to protect inform child protection agency when a child is in need of protection --Ensure clients are protected from self harm/suicide --If psychologist reports subpoenaed by court and required to testify --Child abuse, suicide, homicide, and court cases -Limits of confidentiality should be discussed *before* clients enter into an agreement to receive psychological services (i.e. beginning of the first appointment)

Unstructured Assessment Interviews: Negatives

-Unstructured assessments are not the same because of each psychologists differences. One psychologist may learn different information versus another psychologist who interviews the same patient. -It's possible that because the psychologist controls the interview, that they may not ask the right questions or completely miss getting important information from the client. -This type of interview can increase the possibility of clients being influenced by leading questions.

The importance of psychological tests having strong psychometric qualities, and why those are important in the assessment process

-Use psychological tests that are directly relevant to the assessment task and that have strong psychometric qualities. -Check for scoring errors when using test data. -Use computers as aids in the collection, scoring, and interpretation of clinical data whenever possible. -Use normative data and base rate information whenever available. -Use established diagnostic criteria when making diagnostic decisions. (DSM-5 or ICD-10) -Use evidence-based decision aids, such as decision trees or clinical guidelines. (SCID-5)

The Rationale for Written Reports Use in Assessment

-Uses relevant sources of information (test results, behavioral observations, interview data, case history, etc) in generates hypotheses, formulating interpretations and making recommendations -Interpret the meaning and implications of test scores and refrain making diagnoses solely off a score.

Assessment Interview

-Usually in office -Is private -Is usually 50 minutes to an hour -Confidential -The purpose is to gather information and establish a collaborative relationship -It's goal-directed, keeps to an agenda, clear sequence, keeps to relevant themes -Is focused on client -Clinician can interrupt and redirects conversation -May require persistent questioning over gathering information -Clinicians raise painful topics such as abuse, violence, and suicide -Notes of session are kept by psychologist -With the client's permission, there may be audio or video recorded

What is the Purpose of Validity Scales

-Validity scales are designed to detect whether a person is faking good, faking bad, or responding randomly during an assessment -Can be found in assessments and at times there are even assessments dedicated to detecting possible malingering

Identify the Process in Which Clients Receive Feedback on their Assessment Results

-Verify the general accuracy of the assessment results -Correct any errors or misunderstanding that occurred during the assessment process -Refine the interpretation of the results to ensure an optimal fit with the individual's life circumstances -Put the individual's symptoms, problems, and experiences in the context of his or her life history and current life circumstances -Provide some psychological relief for the individual by presenting an integrated picture that helps make sense of the individual's difficulties -Provide concrete information about steps the individual can take to address personal difficulties -Help the individual identify potentially stressful situations that can exacerbate difficulties -Collaborate with the individual in creating therapeutic goals that build on personal strengths

How do you use the Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAISIV)?

-Wechsler raw scores into standard scores based on normal distribution with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15, thus ensuring comparability in the meaning of IQ scores across ages. -Measured by four index scores --*Verbal comprehension* ----Vocabulary ----Information ----(Comprehension) --*Perceptual reasoning* ----Block design ----Matrix Reasoning ----Visual Puzzles ----(Figure weights) ----(Picture completion) --*Working memory* ----Digit span ----Arithmetic ----(Letter-number sequencing) --*Processing speed* ----Symbol search ----Coding ----(Cancellation)

How was the Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAISIV) Developed?

-Wechsler's goal was to create a test that borrowed from and improved on other tests of intelligence such as the Stanford- Binet and the alpha beta army tests. -He didn't set out to develop a test that reflected a particular theory but rather was looking to create an instrument with substantial clinical utility.