CMM 100 - j. bishop final exam
narrative coherence
the degree to which the story holds together ex: myths and appropriations of past events need to make sense in our world for us to believe them when they are told to us. pg 129
antithesis
the direct opposite, a sharp contrast ex: you are easy on the eyes, but hard on the heart
theory
A hypothesis that has been tested with a significant amount of data
ambushing
A style in which the receiver listens carefully in order to gather information to use in an attack on the speaker. pg 45
Ambiguous
It does not have precise, concrete, or inherent meaning. ex: The term "mean" can refer to the average of a group of numbers or describe a nasty statement or action. pg 120
fixed response
prescribed questions ex: do you believe in grey areas or is there only right and wrong when discussing criminal acts?
exigence
urgent moment in which a response is invited or required, and thereby requires a different vocabulary for the speaker
script
when a schema includes a sequence of behaviors ex: The _____ for dinner at a sit-down restaurant includes being seated by a host, getting drinks and a menu, ordering food, receiving a check, and paying the server before leaving. pg 173
simile
A comparison using "like" or "as" ex: it is hot as hell
syllogism
A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. Basic structure for an argument. pg 217
metonymy
A word that says something but refers to a related matter ex: "I want to buy this. Do you take plastic?" A figure of speech in which a closely related term is substituted for an object or idea. pg 125
disclaimers
According to communication experts, what type of speech pattern decreases the speaker's perceived assertiveness in speech?
dehumanization
Intended to change the manner in which a person or group of people are perceived, reducing the target group to objects or beings not worthy of human rights. ex: Hilter portraying Jews as less than human, thereby making it easier to purge them from society, pg 134
framing
Presenting information either positively or negatively in order to change the influence it has on an individual or group.
The Simple Message Processing Model
SENDER-> encoding -> MESSAGE -> encoding -> RECEIVER
macro context
Social structure, social class and gender.
Arbitrary
Symbols used to represent things that are not intrinsically connected to those things. ex: The word "hot" for instance, formerly only meant raised temperature, nut now also refers to the attractiveness of something ("she/he is so hot") or the success of an action ("he's a hot hitter right now"). pg 119
imply
To express indirectly
sex
_____ is social
guidelines for using language
1. Use language you know and are comfortable with 2. Eliminate Wordiness 3. Know when to use a thesaurus and when not to 4. Use active, rather than passive voice whenever possible 5. Use "I, Me, We" language
rhetorical situation
A situation in which people's understanding can be changed through messages
narrative paradigm
A theoretical framework that views narrative as the basis of all human communication. argues that humans are storytelling beings by nature, and evaluate all stories according to two elements. pg 129
subjectivity
A treatment of _____ matter that uses the interior or personal view of a single observer and is typically colored with that observer's emotional responses.
Logos
An appeal based on logic or reason pg 12, 207
ad hominem fallacy
An argument based on the failings of an adversary rather than on the merits of the case; a logical fallacy that involves a personal attack When speakers attack the person making the argument and not the argument itself ex: when an attorney in court case argues that a prostitute's testimony should not be admitted because prostitutes are not trustworthy or reliable sources. pg 229
objectivity
An impersonal presentation of events and characters. It is a writer's attempt to remove himself or herself from any subjective, personal involvement in a story. Hard news journalism is frequently prized for its objectivity, although even fictional stories can be told without a writer rendering personal judgment.
straw man fallacy
When the speaker ignores the actual position of an opponent and substitutes it with a distorted and exaggerated position ex: Candidate x wants to cease funding the research behind a project, candidate y responds by saying "I cannot believe you do not support protecting the American People." candidate x did not say to defund the entire defense budget. candidate y substituted that one program with a more exaggerated position that was easier to use in an attack. pg 230
Abstract
Words are not concrete or tangible items; you cannot touch them or feel them as they simply represent something else. ex: Animal -> Human Being -> Musician -> Rock Musician -> Bruce Springstein The more concrete and specific the words we use, the more likely the receiver will accurately interpret our message. pg 121
Ethos
Credibility of a speaker pg 12, 207
self concept
It is the self-perception or the view you have of yourself. It is the person you believe you are, formed from your values and beliefs .
praxis
Living according to one's beliefs, not just in private, but in a way that affects the world
ambiguous
Open to more than one interpretation
Vagueness
Statements that are intentionally ____ so that the audience may supply its own interpretations.
social identity
The "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships. Part of the concept that is based on membership in groups
Define Context
The circumstances in which an event occurs that influences the meaning of the moment and the message
Kairos
The opportune time and/or place, the right or appropriate time to say or do the right or appropriate thing. pg 225
gender
_____ is the biological , pg 287
reflective language
_______ is the process of paraphrasing and restating both the feelings and words of the speaker. The purposes of _____ are: To allow the speaker to 'hear' their own thoughts and to focus on what they say and feel. To show the speaker that you are trying to perceive the world as they see it and that you are doing your best to understand their messages. To encourage them to continue talking. Reflecting does not involve you asking questions, introducing a new topic or leading the conversation in another direction. Speakers are helped through reflecting as it not only allows them to feel understood, but it also gives them the opportunity to focus their ideas. This in turn helps them to direct their thoughts and further encourages them to continue speaking.
constitutive language
________ rhetoric is a theory of discourse devised by James Boyd White about the capacity of language or symbols to create a collective identity for an audience, especially by means of condensation symbols, literature, and narratives. I'm not sure about this one.
schema
a mental representation that organizes information about a subject ex: we have to use _____ because our brains are bombarded with more information than we could make sense of without a guide to process it. pg 172
The Linear Model of Communication
a sender who encodes a message, sends it through a channel where it competes with distracting forces called noise while on its way to a receiver who then decodes the message. pg 18, 17-19
aliteration
a series of words using the same beginning letters ex: Carlos is busy as a bee.
self-monitoring
ability to be aware of our own behaviors and statements and how they affect others
open-ended questions
allows someone to answer in his or her own words ex: give me an example when you were faced with a challenge and what you did to complete that challenge (interview questions)
chilling effect
an action that discourages others from speaking their mind. ex: kid wants to take history class, but father says it would be stupid to do that, because you should learn economics from somebody who knows what they are doing. The fear of your parents cutting off your tuition has this effect on you. pg 318
either/or fallacy
an argument in which you present two options and declare that one of them must be correct while the other must be incorrect. ex: Many candidates in elections operate with this faulty reasoning, declaring that "you will vote Republican, or you will vote Democrat." such reasoning presents a false image of the political landscape and the choices every voter has. There are multiple parties to vote for and they can also choose not to vote. pg 228
deductive argument
an argument that reasons from known premises to an inevitable conclusion pg 217 A method of reasoning in which a conclusion follows necessarily from the stated premises.
ideograph
an ill-defined, politically powerful term or phrase that can push people to action Ex: terms such as freedom, terror, rule of law, and liberty pg 126
dialogue
an interaction in which people with different perspectives seek to understand each others views; speaking so that others want to listen and listening so that others want to speak pg 309
post hoc, ergo propter hoc fallacy
assumes that because one event happened after another, then the preceding event caused the event that followed. ex: many superstitions grew from this fallacy, like that black cat walking across your path brings bad luck. "Ice T and Time Warner contract" because he gave the speech Ice T was fired from Time Warner, but that may not have been the real reason he was fired. pg 227
metaphor
comparisons that show how two things are alike in an important way, despite being quite different in most ways ex: "I will now shed some light on the issue." Obviously there is no actual light, but a lack of understanding is compared to darkness, and the speakers intention to provide knowledge is compared to darkness, and the speaker's intention to provide knowledge is compared to illuminating that darkness through providing light. pg 124, 184
glazing over
daydreaming or allowing the mind to wander while another person is speaking pg 45
Age, Sex, Religon, Marital Status are examples of what?
demographic categories
active voice
depicts movement ex: walking the dog
passive voice
depicts past experience ex: walked the dog
Fellowship face
effort to fulfill the need to have others like and respect us
Lark
function best in the morning, early risers
skills you must master to engage in dialogue effectively
give complete attention allow others to speak fully ask clarifying questions suspend you judgement
narrative fidelity
how accurately a narrative represents accepted facts ex: the story must not only make sense, but it must match our own beliefs and experiences pg 129
monologue
interaction where only one voice is present ex: this works well in the military when giving orders pg 309
hummingbirds
middle of the pack, work best during normal hours
kinesics
nonverbal behaviors related to movement ex: your body also conveys information about credibility and emotions to others through facial expressions, gestures, posture, appearance and eye contact pg 153
constructive language
phrases a potentially negative message in a positive way, whereas destructive language directs blame and criticism toward the reader, creating defensiveness. Readers are likely to become defensive when the writer's language expresses any or all of the following: Superiority over the reader Indifference or apathy about an issue of importance to the reader Negative evaluation or judgment of the reader (as opposed to neutral descriptions or observations) Command or control over the reader Skepticism or doubt about the reader's credibility or the legitimacy of their claims Consider the following examples. (1) Boss to employee: "Your job performance recently has been unacceptable and there are no excuses for it. You have claimed that you are having some serious personal problems, but even if this is true, you cannot allow it to affect the quality of your work. If your work doesn't improve, I'll have to replace you with someone else." (2) Student to instructor: "You have confused me so badly with your lectures that I don't know what to do. I am considering dropping out and taking the class next quarter from Dr. Johnstone, who can explain the information much more clearly. I don't want to drop out, but I have never been so frustrated with an instructor in my whole life." (3) Instructor to student: "I have never had a student who was so confused with this material. Perhaps you should take an easier course from an easier professor. It makes no difference to me."
concepts the contribute to civility
politness good manners courteousness respect for others assertiveness
bias
presenting information in a way that unfairly influences someone's perception of something pg 92
inductive argument
reasoning from individual observations or events to conclude a general principle pg 218 ex: Joe likes to fly his kite in a large field, and notices large numbers of ducks land there for food. After several trips to the field he began to notice a pattern- all of the ducks were brown. after several weeks of watching, he always saw brown ducks. His conclusion, based on observation, is that "all ducks are brown" A method of reasoning by which a rhetor collects a number of instances and forms a generalization that is meant to apply to all instances.
accuracy
refers to the source's correctness or truthfulness pg 92
face works
the behaviors we exhibit to maintain a positive impression of ourselves by other people. ex: everyone desires others to see them in the best possible light, and so we present our face in a manner that we believe creates that type of impression pg 275
Pathos
the emotional dimension of the appeal that can influence an audience's disposition toward the topic, speaker, or occasion 4 steps Step 1: Determine the emotion that you want to produce in your audience. Step 2: Connect it to an object (person, place, or thing) but it must be real and recognizable Step 3: language and images that evoke the specific emotion you wish the audience to feel Step 4: connecting the emotion to the overall logic of the persuasive appeal pg 12, 207
autonomy face
the perception that we can do things on our own and our desire to avoid others making decisions for us. pg 276
face threats
things that threaten to damage the image we work to present to others ex: we may feel like we did not do enough research, practice our presentation enough, or even study enough for an exam. These internal feelings turn into threats to our competence face as the effects of those beliefs may make us appear as less of an expert to others. pg 276
Infer
to hint or suggest (something) to form (an opinion) from evidence : to reach (a conclusion) based on known facts
red herring fallacy
when a speaker introduces an irrelevant issue or piece of evidence to divert attention from the subject of the speech ex: "I believe we need to increase enrollment requirements for undergraduate education. With fewer students, we can help solve the budget crisis we face today." The budget crisis, although seemingly related to increased admission standards, is actually not related to the req's for entry into college. To avoid this fallacy it is important to make sure your evidence directly supports your claims. pg 228
begging-the-question
when a speaker presumes certain things are facts when they have not yet been proven to be truthful ex: statements like "Everyone knows that." or "It should go without saying." pg 226
ad populum fallacy
when we attempt to persuade people by arguing our position is reasonable because so many people are doing it or agree with it ex: Many magazine advertisements, beer commercials, and speeches employ this fallacy by trying to convince you of the popularity of an item, event, or idea. There is not enough hard data to support claims pg 229
non sequitur fallacy
when you make an unwarranted move from one idea to another ex: passage: "As I have stood in the crosshairs of those who target second amendment freedoms, I've realized that firearms are not the only issue. No, it's much, much bigger than that. I've come to understand that a cultural war is raging across our land, in which, with Orwellian fervor, certain acceptable though and speech are mandated." starts with a discussion of firearms and second amendment, but then suddenly moves to freedom of speech. He provides no evidence for the move. pg 227
owls
work best in evening and late hours