Cognitive Psychology attention 2

where is the visual cortex located

in the occipital pole, surrounding the calcarine sulcus

Threaded Cognition - Salvucci and Taatgen, 2008, 2011

- Streams of thought represented as threads of processing.

Focal vision

- object recognition / ambient vision - perception of orientation and movement

o Hill climbing:

a simple heuristic used by problem solvers in which they focus on making moves that will apparently put them closer to the goal

o Incubation period

a stage of problem solving in which problem is put to one side for some time; it is claimed to facilitate problem solving

what is an MRI

a static magnetic image, Functional MRI take lots of images creating a moving picture

o Problem space:

an abstract description of all the possible states that can occur within a given problem

o Template:

as applied to chess, an abstract schematic structure consisting of a mixture of fixed and variable information about chess places and positions

Global workspace approach

Conscious awareness is associated with widespread integrated brain activity, including prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate.

Additivity assumption in Cognitive Neuroscience :

assume that brain activation in a dual-task condition to be the same as the sum of the activations in the two single-task conditions.

Trial of zoom lens: Muller et al. 2003

Hypothesis: the more you spread your attention the more your ability to detect a stimulus should deplete.

Wicken's multiple resource theory

Led to construction of computational model - Has contributed to identifying the most important cognitive processes - Evidence supporting that people approach dual-task situations in flexible ways

o Analogy:

a comparison between two objects (or between a current and previous problem) that emphasizes similarities between them

o Algorithm

a computational procedure providing a specified set of steps to problem solution

o Means-ends analysis:

a heuristic method for solving problems based on creating a subgoal to reduce the difference between the current state and goal state

o Progress monitoring:

a heuristic or rule of thumb in which slow progress towards problem solution triggers a change of strategy

Impasse:

blocked path; dilemma with no solution

2. Structural similarity:

casual relations among some of the main components are shared by both problems.

what is the Flat map

chopped up inflated version, laid flat. Cut along the calcarine sulcus

under-additivity in cognitive neuroscience

dual-task has less activation than the sum of activation in single-task conditions.

Representational Change Theory (Ohlsson, 1922)

explains impasse o Argued that we often encounter block or impasse when problem solving because we have represented the problem wrongly.

Main assumptions associated with threads of processing

goals can be active at the same time Threads requiring the same resources must wait their turn All resources have limited capacities Threads claim and release resources at their own will.

where is the right visual field

left visual cortex

what is multiple resource theory in Response type:

may be manual or vocal

key factors (Moors an de Houwer, 2006):of automaticity

o 1. Unconscious: lack of conscious awareness of the process o 2. Efficient: using very little emotional capacity o 3. Fast o 4. Goal-unrelated:

Four-term analogy problems:

o A:B::C:D-E.g.Sun:Moon::Fire:water o There are sequential processing stages in these problems § 1. Encoding - relationship between first pair § 2. Mapping - connect A and C to determine D § 3. Response - evaluate accuracy of D

Problem solving steps:

o Define problem o Brainstorm solutions o Pick a solution o Implement solution o Review results

Zoom Lens Theory (Erikson and St James 1986):

o Only one zoom lens o Extent of focus can be adjusted to suit needs

set goals to figure out most efficient way to solve problem - Problem solving is:

o Purposeful - there is a goal o It involves controlled processes - make an effort to achieve o A problem exists when appropriate knowledge is lacking

Remote Associates Test (Bowden et al. 2005)

o Remote associates test: this involves finding a word that is related to three given words

Multiple Spotlights Model (Awh and Pashler, 2000)

o Split attention and not attend to the space in between

what is Controlled processes in automatic processing

of limited capacity, require attention and can be used flexibly in changing circumstances

what does and MRI measure

oxygenation and blood in the brain, where the oxygenation levels are high = highly active part of the brain. Indirect measurement of neural activity.

what is the multiple resource theory in Modalities:

perception can use visual or auditory resources

what is the multiple resource theory in Processing codes:

perception, cognition and responding can all use spatial and/or verbal codes

o Well-defined problems:

problems in which the initial state, the goal and the methods available for solving them are clearly laid out eg. Chess

o Ill defined problems:

problems that are imprecisely specified; for example, the initial state, goal state and the methods available to solve the problem may be unclear eg. everyday problems

o Knowledge-lean problems:

problems that can be solved by individuals in the absence of specific relevant prior knowledge

o Knowledge rich problems:

problems that can only be solved by those having considerable relevant background knowledge eg. clinical psychologist

3. Procedural similarity:

procedures for turning the solution principle into concrete operations are common to both problems.

Multiple-resource Theory - Wickens 1984, 2008

processing mechanisms. - major dimensions 1.1. Processing stages 2.Processing codes: 3.Modalities: 4. Response type:

where is the left visual field

right visual cortex

o Heuristics:

rules of thumb that are cognitively undemanding and often produce approximately accurate answers

types of similarities between problems: o 1. Superficial similarity:

solution-irrelevant details (e.g. specific objects) are common to the two problems.

o Cognitive miser:

someone who is economical with their time and effort when performing a thinking task

what is the multiple resource theory in Processing stages:

successive stages of perception, cognition (e.g. working memory) and responding

what are Automatic processes:

suffer no capacity limitations, do not require attention and are very hard to modify once learned.

Baddley's working memory model

tasks requiring different resources can be performed together more successfully than those requiring the same resources.

o Insight is

the experience of suddenly realizing how to solve a problem AHA moment Use of hints in helping moments of insight. E.g. swinging of arms before trying to figure out how to get the two pieces of string together

The higher the acuity (closest to the fovea)

the further out on the outskirts of the lobe, low resolution is deeper in the cortex.

o Functional fixedness

the inflexible focus on the usual function(s) of an object in problem solving

o Mental set

the tendency to use a familiar problem-solving strategy that has proved successful in the past even when it is not appropriate

Analogical problem solving strongly correlated

to fluid intelligence

fMRI (functional MRI)

very low res image for anatomical structure, project functional data on the anatomical image

what is Change representation from Ohlsson 1922

§ 1. Elaboration: new problem formation is added to the representation § 2. Constraint relaxation: inhibitions on what is regarded as permissible are removed § 3. Re-encoding: aspect of the problem is reinterpreted

Updated version of the rep change theory by Ollinger et al. (2014)

§ Prior knowledge and perceptual aspects of a problem lead to the formation of problem representation § Representational change is followed by a new search before new representation is reached