COM 115 Final Exam

Call to Action

direct appeal to your listeners by urging them to take a specific action or to change their attitudes.

How can nonfluencies be reduced?

practice to a tape recorder and identify them and replace them with pauses instead

Hidden Agenda

private motivation for acting in a certain way. This is unethical behavior

general encyclopedias

cover a wide range of topics in a broad manner

Dialogic Communication

demonstrates an honest concern for the welfare of the listeners

Illustrations

"In the short time I will be talking with you, 150 violent crimes will have been committed in our nation"

Problems with notcards

- Playing with them - Holding them with both hands - Too much on the notecard - Too many notecards - Writing on both sides

Guidelines for introductions

1. Prepare After the Body of the Speech 2. Make It Creative and Easy to Follow 3. Communicate High Energy by Being Well Practiced 4. Engage Audience Non verbally Before You Start 5. Consider Time Constraints and Mood

Ethical pitfalls in text

1. Purposeful Ambiguity 2. Rumors and Innuendos 3. Herd Mentality 4. Hidden Agendas 5. Excessive and Inappropriate Emotional Appeals

systematic desensitization

A premise that people have learned to associate anxious states with public speaking

mythos

A term given when content supports a claim by reminding an audience how the claim is consistent with cultural identity

euphemism

A word or phrase substituted for more direct language, a mild or indirect word or expression substituted for one considered to be too harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing ex) "passed" euphemism for "died"

How can you capture an audience's attention in the introduction?

Add humor, contain personalized greeting with a story or scenario, startling fact, quotation

Ethical listening attitudes and behaviors

Adopting an attitude of empathy for the speaker and finding compassion for their situation and interest in their message, even if you suspect you might disagree, communicates that you are interested in dialogue and are open minded. To that empathetic attitude you may add supportive nonverbal behaviors like strong eye-contact, head nods, and a smile. Such cues help ease speakers so they can give you their best.

Persuasive aims

Adoption, Continuance, discontinuance, or deterrance

discontinuance

An attempt to persuade your listeners to stop doing something

Reasoning by analogy, from cause, and from sign

Analogy: the characteristics of one case are similar enough to the characteristics of the second case that your argument about the first also applies to the second. Cause: you infer that an event of one kind contributes to or brings about an event of another kind. Sign: the presence of an attribute can be taken as the presence of some larger condition or situation of which the attribute is a part.

Steps in a research strategy

Analyze the audience. Assess your knowledge/skill. Search print and online resources. Interview, if appropriate.

How much of your research needs to be cited in your speech?

Any research included in your speech needs to be cited appropriately to give due credit.

Fallacies

Appealing to audience emotions to disguise the deficit of the speaker's logic not holding up under scrutiny

audience analysis

Audience analysis is a task that is often performed by technical writers in a project's early stages. It consists of assessing the audience to make sure the information provided to them is at the appropriate level. It is important to be able to connect with your audience. Therefore, you want to consider your audience's needs.

Criteria to evaluate web sites

Authority: relates to the concept of credibility. Accuracy: reliable and error-free. Objectivity: extent to which website material is presented without bias or distortion Coverage: depth and breadth of the material. Currency: timeliness of the material.

Listener's Responsibilities

Be Aware of Distractions Check Your Emotions Think critically about the message.

Guidelines for Language and Style

Be Concrete Use the Active Voice Use Language to Create a Theme Use Varying Language Techniques to Engage Listeners Use Humor with Care

Guidelines for using stats in a speech

Be precise. Avoid using too many statistics. Cite your sources. Use visual aids to express statistics.

problem solution pattern

Begin with a detailed discussion of the problem and its effects on the audience. Then present ways to solve it. Finally describe benefits from the solution or recommend a course of action.

What kinds of specific library resources are available?

Books General reference materials. (generalized and specialized encyclopedias) Biographical Sources Statistical Sources Magazines, newspapers, and journals Government Documents

Brief example

Brief examples are short illustrations that clarify a general statement.

Function of an introduction

Capture Attention and Focus Provide a Motive to Listen Enhance Credibility Preview Your Message and Organization

Guidelines for using facts in a speech

Carefully determine how many facts to use. Define terms when they are introduced. Make sure your meanings are clear.

What actions inhibit gesturing properly

Clasping your hands together, hugging your body, locking your hands behind your back, clasping your hands in the "fig leaf" stance, hands on hips, arms folded in front of you, putting your hands in your pockets, grasping and leaning into the lectern

Three C's

Clear, concise, and colorful

Components of ethos

Competence Trustworthiness Dynamism

Guidelines for interviewing someone

Contact the person well in advance. Prepare questions in advance. Develop questions in a logical order. Stay within the agreed time frame.

imagery

Creating a vivid description through the use of one or more of our five senses

similes

Creating images as they compare the characteristics of two different things using words like and as

difference between databases and other websites

Databases are considered a print source for purposes of this class

Guidelines for using eye contact

Distribute your gaze evenly. Glance only briefly and occasionally at your notes. Do not look just above the heads of your listeners.

deductive reasoning

Drawing conclusions based on the connections between statements that serve as premises

intrinsic Ethos

Ethical appeal found in the actual speech, including such aspects as supporting material, argument flow, and source citation

Elements of persuasion

Ethos, Logos, pathos, mythos

data

Evidence in support of an idea you advocate

Why are examples helpful to use in a speech?

Examples enliven speeches in a way that no other form of supporting material can.

Extended example

Extended examples are longer and richer in detail than brief examples. They are used most effectively to build images and to create a lasting impression on the audience.

false cause

Fallacy that points out that because one event happened before another event the first must have caused the second

What is the difference between impromptu, extemporaneous, and manuscript speaking

Impromptu speaking- speaking with little or no preparation time; using no notes or just a few Extemporaneous speaking- a method of delivery that involves using carefully prepared notes to guide the presentation Manuscript- involves writing your speech out word for word and then reading it directly off your paper

Why is a research strategy important?

It allows you to meet all of the parameters set for your speech

How can Statistics be misleading

It is easy to manipulate or misinterpret stats

Name Calling

Linking a person or group to a negative symbol

What are the main parts of an argument?

Logos

Language pitfalls

Long and Unnecessary Words Using Euphemisms: Language That Masks or Muddles Jargon, Slang, and Profanity Exaggeration and Clichés Phrases That Communicate Uncertainty

What guidelines does the book offer for facial expressions

Match facial expressions with your tone. Smile when appropriate

Nonfluencies

Meaningless words that interrupt the flow of our speech; also known as vocalized pauses or vocal fillers

databases in the MSU library

Medline Pubmed...

What guidelines does the book offer for physical movement?

Move naturally Tie your movements to your use of visual aids. Be prepared

Is all speech protected by the first amendment?

No hate speech that is seriously threatening is not protected

attacking

Occurs when a speaker attacks the person rather than the substance of the person's argument

red herring

Occurs when a speaker attempts to divert the attention of the audience from the matter at hand

Why are pauses important in public speaking?

Pauses add color, expression, and feeling to a speech

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Physiological needs: biological needs for food, water, oxygen, procreation, and rest. Safety needs: the need for security, freedom from fear and attack, a home that offers tranquility and comfort, and a means of earning a living. Belonging and love needs: drive for affiliation, friendship, and love. Esteem Needs: the need to be seen as worthy and competent and to have the respect of others. Self Actulization: personal growth, creativity, self-awareness and knowledge, social responsibility, and responsiveness to challenge.

Guidelines for speaking Extemporanously

Prepare carefully. Craft full content and key-word outlines. Capture and cite detailed information on note cards. Write legibly. Your notes are prompts, not a script.

Guidelines for speaking Ethically

Protect your Credibility Engage in Dialogue, not Monologue Stand by Four Principles of Ethical Speech (search, justice, public motivation, respect for dissent) Protect the Common Good Speak Truthfully

Correct Source Citation

Providing the date of publication, date of website access, credentials of the source, and/or type of publication where applicable allows the listener to evaluate the credibility of the information.

How might testimony be used unethically?

Purposefully distorting testimony to suit the needs of your speech is misleading and unethical. Be honest to your source as well as your audience.

importance of research

Research provides the foundation for your speech. It enhances knowledge you may already have by giving you the tools to expand your thesis statement into a full- length presentation. Research helps you to gather your support material

Principles of Ethical speech

Search Justice Public motivation (opposite of hidden agenda) Respect for dissent (encourages diversity of opinions)

Values

Socially shared ideas about what is good, right, and desirable; deep seated abstract judgements about what is important to us

Techniques for developing introductions

Startling Facts/Intriguing Statements Dramatic Story/Build Suspense Quotation and/or Literature Reference Humor Rhetorical Question Illustrations, Examples, and Anecdotes Physically Involve the Audience Relate a Personal Experience Use a Visual or Media Aid Refer to the Situation

Testimonials

Statements testifying to benefits received; can be both helpful and destructive

Monroe's Motivated Sequence

Step 1: Attention. Step 2: Need: describe the problem you will address in your speech. Step 3: Satisfaction: solution to the problem you have just described. Step 4: Visualization: compels listeners to picture themselves either benefiting or suffering from adopting or rejecting your proposal. Step 5: Action: conclusion of your speech; what you want them to do or the point of view you want them to share

emphasis

Stressing certain words or phrases to draw attention

functions of a conclusion

Summarizing important information, motivating listeners, creating closure

Five functions of support

Support is specific. Support helps to clarify ideas. Support adds weight. Support is appropriate to your audience. Support creates interest.

introduction

Supports the body of your speech and should capture your audience's attention and indicate your intent.

jargon

Technical terminology unique to a special activity or group

Memorable Conclusions

Thanking as Transition Call to Action Use a Dramatic Illustration Conclude with a Quotation Conclude with a Metaphor That Broadens the meaning of your speech Conclude with Humor

Eye contact

The connection you form with listeners through your gaze

tone

The emotional disposition of the speaker as the speech is being delivered

volume

The loudness of your voice, controlled by how forcefully air is expelled through the trachea onto the vocal folds

connotation

The meaning we ascribe to words as framed by our personal experience, an idea or feeling that a word invokes in addition to its literal or primary meaning ex) connotation of the word "home" can be "a place of warmth, comfort, and affection"

mood

The overall feeling you hope to engender in your audience

What are the two possible goals of persuasion

The overall goal of a persuasive speech is for the audience to accept your viewpoint as the speaker

rate

The pace at which you speak

epistrophe

The repetition of a word or expression at the end of phrases, clauses, or sentences

alliteration

The repetition of the initial consonant or initial sounds in a series of words

anaphora

The repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences

articulation

The verbalization of distinct sounds and how precisely words are formed

What do "signal" phrases look like?

This cannot be overemphasized ... • Let me get to the heart of the matter ... • I want to summarize ... • My three biggest concerns are .

cause and effect pattern

This pattern is used to show the different causes and effects of various conditions. This pattern is particularly effective when writing a persuasive document in which the writer advocates some action to solve a problem, because it demonstrates important relationships between variables. There are two major variations to this pattern; (a) dividing the outline into two major sections comprised of causes and effects; or (b) dividing the outline according to the different causes, with the effects of each cause contained within the larger "causes" section.

why must language fit needs of the speaker audience occasion and message? what do you need to do to chose proper language

Your audience might get offended and will be inappropriate for your topic, can weaken your credibility, and can make your audience lose interest in your speech, so important to choose proper language that fits your audience and topic

Guidelines for using analogies

Use analogies to build the power of your argument. Be certain the analogy is clear. Avoid using too many analogies.

Guidelines for using examples

Use examples frequently. Use only the amount of detail necessary. Use examples to explain new concepts.

using gestures effectively

Use natural gestures. Gesture purposefully. Gesture appropriately.

slang

Use of informal words and expressions that are not considered standard in the speaker's language

Guidelines for using Testimony

Use only recognizable or credible testimony and quotations. Choose unbiased experts. Identify the source. Develop techniques to signal the beginning and ending of each quotation.

criteria satisfaction pattern

Use this pattern when the audience might initially oppose your solution. You show how your idea meets what the audience needs by first establishing and getting agreement on the necessary criteria and then showing how your solution meets the criteria.

Gestures

Using your arms and hands to illustrate, emphasize, or provide a visual experience that accompanies your thoughts

Why is it important to vary pitch and experiment with your voice's range?

Variety adds interest to your presentation and can convey a variety of emotions

Innuendos

Veiled lies, hints, or remarks that something is what it is not.

transitions

Verbal bridges between ideas, words, phrases or sentences that tell your audience how ideas relate.

pitch

Vocal range or key, the highness or lowness of your voice produced by the tightening and loosening of your vocal chords

Preview Statement

What you are going to talk abut in the rest of the speech

adoption

When you want your audience to start doing something

continuance

When your listeners are already doing the thing you want them to do.

When to cite a source

You must cite sources when you are quoting directly or paraphrasing (restating or summarizing a source's ideas in your own words). You must also cite the source of an illustration, diagram, or graph.

deterrence

Your goal is to convince your listeners not to start something

Why is it important to prepare the introduction after the body of the speech?

Your introduction will take form more easily after you have created an outline of the body of your speech.

What should your rate be?

Your rate should be consistent with the ideas being expressed On the average, Americans' rate of speech is between 120 and 160 words per minute.

hasty generalization

a fallacy based on quantity of data that is too small or is in some way not representative o Examples- stereotyping

hypothetical example

a fictional example; describes circumstances that are realistic

PARTS

a mnemonic for building your information literacy through consideration of point of view, accuracy, reliability, timeliness, and scope of your sources

anecdotes

a short amusing or interesting story about a real incident or person "Once, while traveling on the subway, I noticed a shifty looking man carefully watching each passenger enter and leave the car"

Extrinsic Ethos

a speaker's image in the mind of the audience, the authority, education and experience of a speaker or author

claim

a statement or contention the audience is urged to accept

cliche

a trite phrase, can lull your listeners into a state of boredom because they suggest that both your vocabulary and imagination are limited

logos

an appeal that is rational and reasonable based on evidence provided.

supportive audience

an audience that agrees with you

uncommitted audience

an audience that is neither friendly nor hostile, but most likely not sympathetic.

Plain Folks

an effort to create false identification with the audience, is a propaganda technique in which someone tries to present themselves as an "average Joe"- a common person who can understand and empathize with listener's concerns

authority

an individual cited or considered to be an expert

communication apprehension

an individual's level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons

warrant

an inference that links the evidence with the claim

syllogism

an instance of a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn (whether validly or not) from two given or assumed propositions, each of which shares a term with the conclusion, and shares a common or middle term not present in the conclusion (e.g., all dogs are animals; all animals have four legs; therefore all dogs have four legs ).

proposition of value

assertions rooted in judgments based on ideals- is something unethical

Pitfalls of Introductions

beginning with an apology, being too brief or too long, giving too much away, reading, relying on shock tactics, promising too much, using unnecessary prefatory remarks, using long-winded poems, becoming someone else, overusing some techniques

testimony

citing either short quotes, experience, or opinion

Real example

come from your personal experience.

What purposes do pauses serve?

communicate self-confidence. help listeners digest what you are saying and anticipate what you will say next. helps you move from one topic to the next without actually telling your listeners what you are doing. signals pay attention (especially a long one)

literal analogy

compares like things from similar classes (ex pro football to college football)

metaphor

comparison not using like or as often shows a relation to something bigger than the topic itself

Figures of speech

connect sentences by emphasizing the relationship among ideas and repeating key sounds to establish a pleasing rhythm.

Pitfalls of Conclusions

don't introduce a new topic, don't apologize, don't end abruptly, don't change the mood or tone, don't ignore applause, don't forget to thank your audience and host, don't run away, don't read it, don't ask for questions

figurative analogy

drawing comparisons between things that are distinctly different in an attempt to clarify a concept or persuade

proposition of policy

easily recognizable by their use of the word "should," "ought to," have to," or "must" purpose a course of action, speaker is arguing if something should or should not be done

analogy

establishes common links between similar and not so similar concepts

Data

evidence in support of an idea you advocate.

Types of Testimony

experience, opinion, and short quotations

Incremental Plagiarism

failing to give credit for a specific part of the speech either a quote or paraphrasing

primary sources

firsthand accounts such as diaries, journals and letters. Records of events as they are first described.

specialized encyclopedias

focus on particular areas of knowledge in more detail

Monologic Communication

from this perspective the audience is viewed as an object to be manipulated and, in the process, the speaker displays such qualities as deception superiority

inductive reasoning

generalizing from specific examples and drawing conclusions from what we observe

secondary sources

generally provide an analysis, an explanation, or a restatement of a primary source

How do emotional appeals assist in persuasion?

have the power to elicit happiness, joy, pride, patriotism, fear, hate, anger, guilt, despair, hope, hopelessness, bitterness, and other feelings.

What kind of ethical considerations come with persuasive speaking?

he ethics of persuasion call for honesty, care, thoroughness, openness, and a concern for the audience without manipulative intent. The end does not justify the means at all costs.

How does humor affect the speaker audience relationship?

humor helps break down the psychological barriers that exist between speaker and audience. It can gain attention from the audience. humor should be directly tied to the subject of the speech. If it is appropriate for the topic and the speech you can use it, but if it does not you should not use it in your speech.

Information literacy

implies consuming information wisely and appropriately

Warrant

inference that links the evidence with the claim.

objectivity

information that is fair and unbiased

relationship between of effectiveness of a speech's introduction and conclusion and speaker credibility

introduction and conclusion are very important to your speech because it is what hooks you audience's attention and is the last thing your audience will take away/ hear. Have to be a credible speaker or your audience will not believe you or listen to your speech both are just as important

Why is important to cite the sources of information in your speech?

it gives proper credit to the authors of the materials used, and it allows those who are reading your work to duplicate your research and locate the sources that you have listed as references

pronunciation

knowing how to say a word and saying it correctly

denotative

literal, objective definition provided by a dictionary

Questions speakers can ask themselves in order to avoid unethical research practices

make sure it credible and reliable sources and it is appropriate for your speech

closure to a speech

make sure to end your speech with something your audience can take away from it, tell them things they can do, importance of it, wrap up your speech

pathos

persuading through emotional appeals

proposition of fact

persuading your listeners that your interpretation of a situation, event, or concept is accurate

comparative advantages organizational pattern

place alternative solutions to a problem side-by-side and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each, is useful when the audience already agrees there is a problem that needs a solution, as a speaker using this pattern you try to convince the audience that your plan is the best by placing alternative solutions or plans side by side and discuss advantages and disadvantages of each

opinions

points of view that may or may not be supported in fact

Organizational patterns for persuasive speeches

problem-solution Cause and effect Comparative advantages Criteria satisfaction Motivated sequence

How can a speaker motivate an audience in the conclusion?

relate your topic to your listeners, communicate a feeling, and broaden the message.

accurate

reliable, current, and error-free

Glittering generalities

rely on the audience's emotional responses to values such as home, country, and freedom

ethos

speaker credibility

Claim

statement or contention the audience is urged to accept.

Narrative

stories within a speech; anecdotes that create visual images in listeners' minds.

examples

support that illustrates a point or claim

Parallel Structure

the arrangement of a series of words, phrases, or sentences in a similar form; done by anaphora or epistrophe; often uses three

personification

the attribution of a personal nature or human characteristics to something nonhuman, or the representation of an abstract quality in human form

Aristotle's notion of credibility

the belief speakers can abuse their ethical relationship with their listeners when they misinterpret information or fail to collect al the information needed to give a complete and fair presentation

statistics

the collection, analysis, interpretation and presentation of information in numerical form

asyndeton

the deliberate omission of conjunctions between a series of related clauses ex) She ran, jumped, vaulted, landed - a perfect 10!

coverage

the depth and breadth of the material

credibility

the extent to which a speaker is perceived as a competent spokesperson

supporting material

the information used in a particular way to make one's case; helps to enhance and strength your speech and back up your main points.

Plagerism

the practice of taking someone else's work or ideas and passing them off as one's own

Ethics

the rules we use to determine good and evil, right and wrong. These rules may be grounded in religious principles, democratic values, codes of conduct, and bases of values derived from a variety of sources

Active voice

the subject is identified first and it performs the action implied by the verb

currency

the timeliness of the material

antithesis

the use of contrast, within a parallel grammatical structure, to make a rhetorical point, two opposite ideas put together in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect

opposed audience

this audience does not agree with you, is not friendly or sympathetic, and will search for flaws in your argument

slippery slope

this fallacy claims there will be a chain reaction that will end in some fire consequence

Bandwagoning

unethical speakers may convince listeners to support their point of view by telling them everyone else is already involved

Passive voice

used when we want the importance of the subject to be deemphasized or omitted

facts

verifiable and irrefutable information

Should everyone try to use humor in their introductions?

we include humor into our speech to grab attention of an audience and connect us, but only use humor in a speech if it appropriate

Characteristics of Spoken Language

word order: the order in which ideas should be arranged in a sentence. Rhythm: speech flow or pattern that is created in many ways, including variations in sentence length, the use of parallel structure, and the expression of images in groups of three. Signals

Why should you vary your rate?

you can express different thoughts and feelings

What role does appearance play in public speaking?

your clothes make a rhetorical statement of their own by contributing to your spoken message. Your choice of shoes, suits, dresses, jewelry, tattoos, hairstyle, and body piercings should not isolate you from your listeners. If that occurs, the intent of your speech is lost. do nothing to distract from the message.

What six fallacies does the book discuss

• Attacking- occurs when a speaker attacks the person rather than the substance of the person's argument, also known as ad hominem, a personal attack is often a cover up for lack of evidence or solid reasoning, Name calling or labeling are common with this fallacy o Example- attacking presidents • Red Herring- occurs when a speaker attempts to divert the attention of the audience from the matter at hand o Example- a son might be told to "take your shoes off the table" and will retort with "these are boots, not shoes" • Hasty generalization- a fallacy based on quantity of data that is too small or is in some way not representative o Examples- stereotyping • False cause- when a speaker uses a fallacy to point out that because one event happened before another event, the first event causes the second event o Example- "Germs are more likely to spread outside of the work environment because more people call in sick on Mondays than on any other day of the week." • False analogy- compares two things that are not really comparable o Example- You're comparing apples and footballs" • Slippery slope- this fallacy claims there will be a chain reaction that will end in some dire consequence o Example- If we allow the children to choose the movie this time, they are going to expect to be able to choose the school they go to or the doctors they visit.

guidelines for using notecards

• View your note cards as an extension of your arm, gesturing as you would without the note cards. • Cards should fit into your hand comfortably. • Generally, 4"x6" cards are easier to work with than 3"x5" cards. • Avoid distracting note cards. • Number your note cards. If you drop them, you can get them back in order quickly. • Check their sequence before speaking