COM101 Test #2

just

Bob just finished his project on time. (Bob completed it on time only a few minutes ago.) Bob finished just his project on time. (Everything else was late.) Bob finished his project just on time. (It was completed right at the deadline.)

causative verbs

Four sets of verbs are often confused ("lie" and "lay," "fall" and "fell," "sit" and "set," "rise" and "raise"). The second word in each set is a causative form of the first.

Noun clauses

Function as nouns within a sentence, Begin with relative pronouns or subordinating conjunctions

adverb clauses

Modify verbs, adjectives and adverbs; Begin with subordinating conjunctions-adverbs; Answer adverb questions—How? When? Where? Under what conditions? Why? How often? etc Like other adverbs modifying verbs, adverb clauses can be moved around in their sentences. when an adverb clause preceded the IC, a comma is needed between the. (not needed when it follows)

dependent clause

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION or RELATIVE PRONOUN or RELATIVE ADVERB + SUBJECT + VERB = Incomplete Thought Subordinate or dependent clauses can never stand alone as complete sentences. They must be attached to main or independent clauses. Subordinate clauses are "subordinate" only in the grammatical sense; they may be very important in the development of your story

adjective clauses examples

The alpine skier, who had never before left Scandinavia, found that he loved the tropics. The man whom you gave the check to appeared shocked. We stopped at the used-book store where Alan spent nearly $100.00 on an old encyclopedia set. We stopped at the used-book store, where Alan spent nearly $100.00 on an old encyclopedia set.

oxford comma

Until recently, the formal "Oxford comma" (a comma used in a list before the word "and") was standard usage. It has become less so in the last decade and is discouraged in AP ("news") style. It is logically unnecessary and inconsistent with some other rules. Even so, it can add clarity, especially in a long or complicated sentence. Clarity is your primary objective!

noun clause examples

What Bailey used on the walls made the kitchen look institutional. (Subordinating Conjunction) Samantha said that our papers are due next Sunday night. (May also begin with asked if or wondered whether) (Relative Pronoun) Whoever asks for help will receive it.

suspensive hyphenation

When two or more hyphenated terms share a word or words, the shared word or words do not need to be repeated. • Hoffman's is a local family-owned and -operated business.

misplaced modifiers

do not make sentences ungrammatical; wrong because they say something the writer did not intend them to say." most commonly misplaced adverbs: Just, Only, Almost, Nearly Adverb qualifiers should be placed where the word or words they are intended to modify are obvious to your readers! They are generally understood to modify the word(s) immediately after them.

adjective phrase

group of words that describe a noun or pronoun in a sentence. Depending on its form, the adjective phrase can be placed before or after the noun or pronoun in the sentence. The movie was not too terribly long. A person smarter than me needs to figure this out. The unbelievably difficult final exams destroyed my GPA.

semicolon

join two closely related independent clauses, particularly when these clauses are of equal importance. • Don greeted the news calmly; Mary welcomed it with squeals of joy used to separate such elements as clauses or items in a series or list, particularly when one or more of the elements already includes a comma. • The path took us through the deep, dark woods; across a small meadow; into a cold, wet cave; and up a hillside overlooking the lake. A semicolon is sometimes used instead of a comma before a coordinating conjunction in a compound complex sentence. • When we arrived, we felt welcomed by everyone we met; but when we left, we saw no one who was sad to see us go.

Sentence Fragment

word group that fails to be a sentence in the sense that it cannot stand by itself. It does not contain even one independent clause

gerund phrases

GERUND + OBJECTS AND/OR MODIFIERS look exactly like participial phrases, but they function as nouns, not adjectives. Twiddling his thumbs kept the bored security guard from falling asleep. A good strategy for avoiding dirty dishes is eating every meal off paper towels.

adverb clause examples

I began counting the days to graduation as soon as I walked onto campus for the first day of my freshman year. Because Fred's desk was covered with candy wrappers, he couldn't find his room key. Philip didn't feel like eating lunch after he ate his breakfast of anchovies and raw oysters.

nearly

I nearly drove to New York City last weekend. (I gave the trip much consideration, but at the last moment I decided not to go.) • I drove nearly to New York City last weekend. (I drove all the way to Yonkers, but I had to stop when my transmission caught on fire.)

complex sentence

IC + Adverb clause(s) IC + Adjective clause(s) IC + Noun clause(s) IC + any number of DCs

compound-complex sentence

IC, coordinating conjunction (or ; or ; + conjunctive adverb or transitional phrase +,) + IC + DCs

misplaced prepositional phrases

can function as adjectives or adverbs When a prepositional phrase is placed at the end of a sentence, it can appear to function as an adjective when it was intended to function as an adverb. The runners stood ignoring the crowd in their lanes. (Adjective) The runners stood in their lanes ignoring the crowd. (Adverb) When there is more than one clause, an adverbial prepositional phrase at the end of a sentence can appear to modify the wrong verb. Thomas had a bag of cookies that Jaqueline had baked in his backpack. Thomas had in his backpack a bag of cookies that Jaqueline had baked. Prepositional phrases are generally understood to modify the word(s) immediately before them.

period

end of sentence; end of an abbreviation Note that no additional period is added to the end of a sentence when the last word is an abbreviation. • Periods are NOT typically used in acronyms and trademarks. They ARE used in some initialisms.

unintentional fragments

errors in writing inadvertently type a period rather than comma; autocorrect automatically capitalizes the next word

intentional fragments

features added to enable more effective communication—Intentional fragments may lack the subject-verb pair needed for an independent clause, but like complete sentences, they convey complete thoughts (but only in context). can be used to answer questions (Who you going to call?), to draw attention to items to be considered independently, to shake up prose

noun phrase

functions in a sentence as a noun (as a subject, object, or subject complement) OPTIONAL MODIFIER(S) + NOUN + OPTIONAL MODIFIER(S) can be appositives (usually follow reference), renaming nouns or pronouns. Amy bought a house with no roof. Amy bought a new home, a house with no roof, on Euclid Avenue.

hyphens

join two or more words to form compounds, especially when so doing makes the meaning more clear to the reader. We met to discuss long-range planning. replace the word "to" when a span or range of data is given. (An en dash is used in Univ. of Chicago style and is automatically inserted by some word processing applications.) The organization was active 1930-1935. used to indicate ratios and betting odds in AP style. indicate a word break at the end of a line

tense shifting

moving from one tense to another in a single paragraph or sentence. Sometimes it is inappropriate; sometimes it is appropriate. Inappropriate tense shifting: When we arrived at the park, the guide is ready to lead us up the mountain. Appropriate tense shifting: We stayed in the old lodge that is located at the beginning of the trail. Within a narrative, tenses should not change, but if statements of fact or generalizations are made, these may be stated in the present tense.

four types of sentences

simple: one independent clause compound: two or more independent clauses (of equal status) complex: one IC plus two or more DCs compound-complex: two or more ICs plus one or more DCs

temporary compound modifiers

terms not found in a standard dictionary

sit v set

to assume a position in which one's weight is supported by one's buttocks v to cause to sit (C)

exclamation point

used to mark the end of a sentence that expresses a strong feeling, typically surprise/joy/anger I want you to leave now and never come back!

comma splices

a sentence in which only a comma (not a semicolon or a comma and a coordinating conjunction) is used to separate independent clauses. The cat ate the rat, the rat ate the peanut butter created accidentally, without our identifying them as problems. easily corrected and seldom require a complete rewriting of the sentence.

absolute phrases

NOUN + PARTICIPLE + OPTIONAL OBJECT(S) AND/OR MODIFIERS Our hearts pounding with excitement, we watched the race. will modify or describe the entire clause—it is called a sentence adverb. • Angela perched on the chair, her back aching from the seat's poor design.

sentence

a set of words that is complete in itself, typically containing a subject and predicate and consisting of a main clause and sometimes one or more subordinate clauses.

expletive constructions

fillers; they add nothing to the sense of what is being said. In English, they begin with the word "it" (the expletive), followed by "is." The "it is" construction does appear in some idiomatic expressions that make sense (where "it" clearly serves as a personal pronoun). It is is used when identifying a person It is is used in statements about time, distance, or weather. should be deleted, especially in your writing!

colon

introduce something, especially a list of items, after an independent clause. • In my mailbox were three pieces of mail: a postcard, a catalog and a wedding invitation. separate two clauses in a sentence when the second clause is being used to explain or illustrate the first (independent) clause. • Most of the dogs in the neighborhood are quite small: two of them are Chihuahuas. introduce a statement or a quotation after an independent clause. • His parents say the most important rule is this: Always tell the truth. follow the greeting in a formal or business letter. • Dear Dr. Wilson: separate minutes from hours (and seconds from minutes) in showing time of day and measured length of time. • You should be at the restaurant by 12:20.

permanent compound modifiers

terms found in a standard dictionary award-winning, self-sustaining, knee-high

four functions of a sentence

Declarative - Conveys a statement Interrogative - Conveys a question Exclamatory - Conveys an exclamation Imperative - Conveys a command

compound sentence

IC, coordinating conjunction IC IC;IC IC: conjunctive adverb or transitional phrase, IC Not compound-IC:IC

Infinitive Phrase

INFINITIVE + OBJECT(S) AND/OR MODIFIERS To write the lengthy essay can function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. • To avoid a lecture from his parents was Michael's motive for thriftiness The best thing to happen to me was getting a new car for my birthday She washed the dishes to keep her roommates from complaining.

agreement issue rules

If the subject is separated from the verb by a phrase beginning with "along with," "as well as," "besides," "not," etc., do not regard those phrases as part of the subject but as asides. Sen. Batson D. Belfry, along with the newsmen, is expected to arrive shortly. With words that indicate portions "of" something, like "percent," "a lot," "some," "all," "most," etc., the number of the verb must agree with the number of the noun following "of." Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared. Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared. "Majority" always takes a singular verb! The majority of the candidates supports this position. Distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc., when considered as a unit, use singular verbs. Ten dollars is a high price to pay for that sandwich. Some collective nouns may take either a singular or a plural verb, depending on their use in a sentence. The staff is in a meeting. The staff are free to attend the conference, as they wish. "Were" replaces "was" in dependent clauses that express a wish or are contrary to fact (i.e., use the subjunctive mood). If Joe were here, you'd be sorry

Titles

In all but AP style, titles of books, movies, albums, and plays are written in italics, bold-faced type (less commonly) or are underlined (when italics, etc., are unavailable). Titles of chapters, articles, short stories, individual songs, and poems are enclosed in quotation marks. AP style puts quotation marks around the titles of almost all created works. Originally, this was for practical reasons; now, it is for reasons related to graphic design.

fixing comma splices

Inserting a semicolon in place of the comma. The cat ate the rat; the rat ate the peanut butter. Changing the first independent (main) clause into a dependent (subordinate) clause. When I went into the second grade, I had my first basic lessons in grammar. Inserting a coordinating conjunction after the comma. She walked all the way home, and she shut the door. Making the sentence into two sentences. Register for next semester as soon as you can. Get the classes you want.

fixing fused sentences

Inserting a semicolon. For our annual picnic, Rupert and Gertrude brought potato salad; we brought hamburgers. Inserting a comma and a coordinating conjunction. This cup has a leak in the bottom, and my coffee is seeping out onto my desk. Creating separate sentences. Earl and I listened to the mp3 produced by the new group. Neither of us was impressed.

almost

Jane gave almost $50.00 to the hospital charity. (She gave $49.90.) Jane almost gave $50.00 to the hospital charity. (She had the money in hand but backed out at the last minute.)

adjective clause

Modify nouns pronouns; Begin with relative pronouns or relative adverbs relative pronoun (object)/adverb +subject+verb=incomplete or relative pronoun as subject + verb+incomplete follow noun or pronoun they modify essential clauses (need the information it provides) ARE NOT set off by commas; begin with THAT when referring to animals/things A person who eats too much pizza will soon develop pepperoni breath. nonessential clauses ARE set off by commas; begin with which Joey, who eats too much pizza, has developed pepperoni breath

only

Only I love you. (That's too bad. No one else does.) I only love you. (Unfortunately, I don't really like you all that much.) I love only you. (I love you and no one else.)

Participial Phrases

PARTICIPLE (PRESENT OR PAST) + OBJECTS AND/OR MODIFIERS The bored security guard twiddling his thumbs stared down the hallway. I enjoy sleeping in a bed covered with blankets always function as adjectives. • Not all adjective phrases are participial phrases, but all participial phrases are adjective phrases. led by PAST PARTICIPLES always convey the sense of the PASSIVE VOICE. Painted orange and yellow, the SUV was easily spotted in the parking lot. Participial phrases led by PRESENT PARTICIPLES always convey the sense of the ACTIVE VOICE and a PROGRESSIVE TENSE. Walking slowly down the gravel road, Mr. Allison realized how much he would miss his country home.

Prepositional phrases

PREPOSITION + NOUN, PRONOUN, GERUND, OR CLAUSE OR PREPOSITION + MODIFIER(S) + NOUN, PRONOUN, GERUND, OR CLAUSE On the rotting tree limb; from eating too much Prepositional phrases function in sentences as adjectives or adverbs. • As adjectives, they answer the question "Which one?" As such, they are sometimes considered adjective phrases. The bus stop at the end of the street seldom saw riders. As adverbs, they answer the questions "How?" "When?" or "Where?" As such, they are sometimes considered adverb phrases. Jill decided to go home after the movie.

independent clause

SUBJECT + VERB = Complete Thought Every sentence must have at least one main or independent clause Main clauses are "main" only in the grammatical sense; they may not be the most significant parts their sentences.

existential constructions

The sentence begins with the adverb "there" and a form of "to be" or another linking verb. point out the existence of something. In English, they begin with the adverb "there," followed by a linking verb (usually a form of "to be") errors are made when singular forms of "to be" are used with plural forms of the sentence's subject. Checking subject-verb agreement in existential constructions is easy when we re-order the sentence to reveal the subject. WRONG: There is dozens of books on the table. Re-ordered: Dozens of books is there on the table.

lost subjects

The writer loses track of what is the actual subject of the sentence. When a sentence is long and complicated, its actual subject is easily forgotten, and it can "feel" right for the verb to agree with a word that isn't the subject. The assortment of dishes, including odd plates, cups, and saucers, were placed in a cardboard box in the kitchen. Particularly confusing are postnoun modifiers (prepositional phrases and participial phrases) that include nouns To check for subject-verb agreement, work from the verb backward till you reach the first noun eligible to be a subject of the sentence. The verb and this noun must agree in number.

compound subjects

Two or more subjects are joined by a coordinating conjunction. formed when two or more subjects are joined by a coordinating conjunction or a correlative conjunction (which contains a coordinating conjunction). And • Or • Either .... or • Neither ... nor Rules: If the coordinating conjunction is "and," the compound subject requires a plural verb. If the coordinating conjunction is "or" or "nor," the verb must agree in number with the subject element closest to the verb. If the nouns of the subject refer to the same person or thing, a singular verb is used. If the compound subject begins with "each" and/or "every," a singular verb is used (the "Each and Every" Rule). If the compound subjects form a well-recognized single unit, a singular verb is used with them (the "Ham and Eggs" Rule).

clause

a word group (or "group of related words") with at least both a subject and a verb

Brackets

allow the insertion of editorial material inside quotations used for clarification if the original material includes a noun or pronoun that is unclear. • In his memoirs, the author reveals, "The year we moved into the house [1985] was a difficult one for us, both emotionally and financially." should be an addition, not a substitution. In many cases, brackets can be avoided by reframing the quotation. used to provide a translation of foreign words or phrases that might not be understood. "I seldom spoke in French class. When I did, I usually just said je ne sais pas [I don't know]." In most contexts, it is acceptable to silently change the first letter of quoted material from uppercase to lowercase, or vice versa. In certain contexts, such changes must be indicated with brackets. • "[T]his study has been widely cited, notwithstanding its dubious methodology." used to indicate errors The Latin term sic, meaning "so" or "thus," is used to indicate an error or confirm an unusual usage in the original material. Without the sic, a reader might wonder if the error was made by the writer offering the quotation. Note that sic should be italicized, but the brackets containing it should not. • The final report indicated that "pilot error were [sic] the most likely cause of the crash." If you suspect, but are not certain of, an error in the original material, a bracketed guess and question mark is appropriate. use italics to emphasize a portion of a quotation, indicate the change in brackets. If the original material contains language you deem inappropriate for your audience, brackets can be used to remove it. In the rare event that parentheses are required within parentheses, use brackets instead. In his twenties, he toured the country giving lectures to physics students (subsequently published as M-theory for Morons [2008]). If the material being quoted already contains brackets, this should be noted.

"Squinting" Modifiers

are adverbs that are placed at a boundary of two clauses or phrases with the unfortunate result that the reader cannot tell which clause or phrase the adverb should go with; they seem to look in two different directions at the same time" EX: The Chancellor announced this spring construction would begin on campus improvements. appears frequently in headlines and news writing prevented by taking special care when positioning adverbs

commas

can separate the clauses of a compound sentence when there are two independent clauses joined by a conjunction, especially when the clauses are not very short. The rain fell all day, so I decided to stay home and sleep. But • They came and they went can separate the clauses of a compound sentence when there is a series of independent clauses, the last two of which are joined by a conjunction The bus ride to the resort was rough, the cabin was dirty, the food was awful, and we were ready to leave after the first night. used to precede or set off, and therefore indicate, a nonessential dependent clause (a clause that could be omitted without changing the meaning of the main clause). The cookies, which were just baked, exuded a wonderful fragrance. can follow an introductory phrase In the cool autumn afternoons, Ellen and Michael loved jogging in the park. can set off words used in direct address Other than that, Mrs. Lincoln, how was the play? can separate two or more coordinate adjectives (adjectives that could otherwise be joined with "and") that modify one noun. The robin gazed hungrily at the big, fat, juicy worm. cumulative adjectives (in which an adjective modifies another adjective) are not separated by a comma. She wore bright yellow rubber boots non-coordinate adjectives are not separated by commas. • He drove a tiny yellow French car. can separate three or more items in a series or list. • Charlie, Melissa, Stan(,) and Mark will be this year's soloists in the spring concert. used to separate and set off the elements in an address or other geographical designation. • Irving has lived at 123 Elm Street, Anytown, NY 12111, for eleven years. used to set off direct quotations. • "The king has no clothes," said the boy, "but I have a bathrobe he can borrow." used to set off titles after a person's name. • Alice Jones, M.D., is their family physician. used to separate elements of dates (in some cases). • We will leave on April 17, 2018, and return on April 19 at 8:00 p.m. used to set off word groups when the "natural order" of a sentence is interrupted (as by an appositive or adverb) or rearranged (as when a prepositional phrase or subordinate clause begins a sentence). • Rob, the finest fellow I ever met, came to dinner last night. (Appositive) do not omit when needed but do not use when you should not

how tenses are used

present tense: statements of fact; generalizations; used in fiction and some nonfiction to express the "historical present." Syracuse is in the Eastern Time Zone. To study the textbook is a waste of time. past tense: event that took place in past time; narratives Fred lived in Guadalajara for eight years. It rained off and on all month. present perfect tense: actions that have occurred continuously/repeatedly from some time in the past right up to the present Fred has lived in Guadalajara for eight years. past perfect tense: emphasize the fact that particular event was completed before a more recent past-time event took palace Fred had lived in Guadalajara for eight years.

Phrase

s a word group (or "group of related words") that does not contain the subject-verb pair necessary to form a clause. names based on their function or the type of word that begins or governs the word group.

Dangling Modifiers

said to dangle because it looks like it might fall off the sentence it is attached to; phrases of various sorts, participial and infinitive phrases being the most common" EX: When starting on cold mornings, I find that my car needs to idle for a few moments. Recognizing: Move a copy of the subject of the main clause into the subject position of the modifying phrase; Change the verbal in the modifying phrase so that it agrees (as a verb) with the new subject; and If this new sentence doesn't make sense, the original phrase is a dangling modifier Fixing them: Change the modifier to make it compatible with the main part of the sentence; or Change the main part of the sentence to make it compatible with the modifier.

fused sentence

sentence that has no punctuation at all separating one independent clause from another often created accidentally, without our identifying them as problems, especially if they occur within complicated sentences. easily corrected and seldom require a complete rewriting of the sentence.

apostrophe

show where a letter or letters are missing in a contraction. • We've [we have] decided that if she can't [cannot] go, then we aren't [are not] going either show possession: a singular noun or an irregular plural noun is created by adding an apostrophe and an "s." • the horse's mouth possessive of a regular plural noun is created by just an apostrophe: horses' mouth possessive of a proper noun ending in "s" is sometimes created by an apostrophe and an "s" and sometimes by just an apostrophe. The choice for spoken English is made upon considerations of convenience and sound: Moses' not used to form plurals: 1950s, As, ABCs; exceptions: plurals of lower-case letters (p's), plurals of single capital letters (A's) The use of the apostrophe in forming plurals of single lower-case letters is to avoid confusion between some letters and words (a's, i's, u's). The apostrophe is used with all single letters in AP style for consistency of appearance.

adverb phrase

simply two or more words that act as an adverb. It can modify a verb, adverb, or adjective and can tell "how," "where," "why," or "when." Meet me at the mall. Without thinking, he turned down the road. They must kiss before sunset.

rise v raise

to go upward v to cause to rise (C)

fall v fell

to move downward v to cause to fall (C)

lie v lay

to recline v to cause to recline (C)

Em Dashes

used most commonly to replace the usage of parentheses within sentences. If the information being set off is in the middle of the sentence, a pair of em dashes is used. • On our way to school, we walk past the Turner Farm—the oldest dairy farm in town— and watch the cows being fed. If the information being set off is at the end of the sentence, just one em dash is used. • The stores were filled with holiday shoppers—even more so than last year. can take the place of commas in setting off asides and the like. signify that the words they set off are • less integral to the sentence than words set off by commas; • more integral to the sentence than words set off by parentheses; but • of equal importance to the sentence as other words not set off. may be used when a change of structure or thought occurs in the midst of a sentence. I was about to leave when—and you won't believe what she said. Add one space before and after em dashes in AP style.

parentheses

used to enclose information that gives extra detail or explanation to the regular text. can separate a word or words in a sentence from the rest of the sentence. On our way to school, we walk past the Turner Farm (the oldest dairy farm in the area) and watch the cows being fed. can form a separate complete sentence. Please bring a dessert to the party. (It can be something very simple.) I look forward to seeing you there.

ellipses

used to indicate words that are omitted as superfluous or able to be understood from contextual clues. should be placed where the words are omitted. It does not replace a period at the end of a sentence, which may also be needed. may be used to indicate pauses or breaks in thought, as in dialogue. In other styles, they may not be so used!

question mark

used to mark the end of a sentence that asks a direct question (generally, a question that expects an answer). Rhetorical questions don't always need them. Is there a reason to bring that much money with us?

quotation marks

used to set off direct quotations (exact renderings of someone's spoken or written words). "I think your new car was a good purchase," Philip remarked to Justine. indirect quotations (which are often preceded by that/if/which) are not set off by quotes He told me that he went to school in Boston. used to set off words or phrases that have specific technical usage, or to set off meaning of words, or to indicate words that are being used in a special way in a sentence. The part of the flower that bears the pollen is the "stamen." should NEVER be used to emphasize a word or words in a sentence! enclose commas and periods. He said without enthusiasm, "I'm pleased to be here." are enclosed by colons and semicolons. She called the performance "lackluster"; she won't be recommending it to her friends. either enclose or are enclosed by question marks and exclamation points, depending upon whether the question mark or exclamation point is a part of the direct quotation. • Do you have a copy of the article called "Introduction to Reporting"? • Alice asked me, "Do you hear what I hear?"