Combo AP Biology Final Exam Review Study Guide
metabolic rate
Amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time; the sum of all the energy-requiring biochemical reactions.
primary production
Amount of light energy converted to chemical energy by autotrophs.
gross primary production (GPP)
Amount of light energy that is converted to chemical energy by photosynthesis.
Bacterial Artificial Chromosome (BAC)
An artificial version of a bacterial chromosome that can carry inserts of 100,000 to 500,000 base pairs.
Medical workers use a sphygamomanometer to measure _____
Blood pressure
messenger RNA (mRNA)
Carries genetic message from the DNA to he protein-synthesizing machinery of the cell.
How do cells use the ATP cycle shown in the figure?
Cells use the cycle to recycle ADP and phosphate.
cell body
Contains most of a neuron's organelles and its nucleus.
histamine
Chemical stored in mast cells that triggers dilation and increased permeability of capillaries.
the three-domain system
Domains Bacteria, Archae, and Eukarya.
nuclear envelope
Double membrane perforated with pores that control the flow of materials in and out of the nucleus.
Rh factor
Refers to the presence or absence of the Rh antigen on red blood cells.
disruptive selection
Shift toward the extremes.
estivation
Summer torpor. Enables animals to survive long periods of high temperatures and scarce water supplies.
membrane potential
The voltage of a plasma membrane.
electrochemical gradient
The combination of forces that acts on membrane potential.
osmoregulation
The control of water balance.
cerebral hemispheres
The right and left halves of the cerebrum.
B lymphocytes (B cells)
Lymphocyte that matures in the bone marrow and secretes antibodies.
kin selection
Natural selection that favors altruistic behaviors by enhancing reproductive success of relatives.
transport vesicles
Vesicles in transit from one part of the cell to another.
oxidative phosphorylation
When energy is released at each step of the chain is stored in a form the mitochondrion can use to make ATP.
what are saturated fats?
come from animals, solid at room temperature, linked to heart disease when ingested i.e. butter
what are unsaturated fats?
come from plants, liquid at room temp., good dietary fats -1 double bond formed by removal of hydrogen from the carbon skeleton -less hydrogen than saturated fats
What is the difference between the sugars found in DNA and RNA?
deoxyribose lacks oxygen atom on 2nd carbon ring
what is chemotaxis?
phagocytes migrate to an infected site in response to local chemical attractants
what is the danger in a blood transfusion?
the recipient has antibodies to the donor's antigens
what is a polar molecule?
unbalanced,, asymmetrical i.e. H2O strong attractions
what is a polar covalent bond?
unequal sharing of electrons between two atoms ex: Juliet and 'Barium's' relationship
what is electron configuration?
the ways in which electrons are arranged in various orbitals around the nucleus of atoms
Genus
A taxonomic category above the species level, designated by the first word of a species two-part scientific name.
synaptic terminal
A bulb at the end of an axon in which neurotransmitter molecules are stored and released.
enzyme
A catalytic protein.
Punnett square
A diagram for predicting the allele composition of offspring from a cross between individuals of known genetic makeup.
pedigree
A diagram that shows the occurrence of a genetic trait in several generations of a family.
concentration gradient
A difference in the concentration of a substance across a distance.
glycoprotein
A protein with one or more carbohydrates covalently attached to it.
signal-recognition particle
A protein-RNA complex that recognizes a signal peptide as it emerges from the ribosome.
inducer
A specific small molecule that inactivates the repressor in an operon.
homeostasis
"Steady state" or "constant internal milieu".
what are the five major phases of the cell cycle?
-G1 -S -G2 which together make up interphase -mitosis -cytokinesis
what are some functions of proteins?
-growth and repair -signaling fro one cell to another -defense against invaders -catalyzing chemical reactions
what are the functions of membrane proteins?
-transport molecules through channels, pumps, and carriers -act as enzymes -act as receptors -cell to cell attachment
Given several molecules, know which one contains the most covalent bonds
...
signal
A behavior that causes change in another's behavior.
nuclease
A DNA cutting enzyme that excises damaged DNA.
Recombinant DNA
A DNA molecule made in vitro with segments from different sources.
reducing agent
A reduces B, which accepts the donated electrons.
community
All species that inhabit an area.
Gram-negative bacteria
Bacteria that have complex cell walls with less peptidoglycan but with lipopolysaccharides. Very toxic and hard to treat.
phylogenetic trees
Branching diagrams that depict hypotheses about evolutionary relationships.
glycolosis
Breaking glucose into two molecules of a compound called pyruvate.
electron transport chain
Breaks the fall of electrons to oxygen in several energy-releasing steps.
aposematic coloration
Bright warning colors in animals with a chemical defense.
quaternary consumer
Carnivore that eats tertiary consumers.
lyse
Cell bursting.
Cdk
Complex of cyclin and kinase.
incomplete dominance
Creates a blended phenotype; one allele is not completely dominant over the other.
sexual recombination
Crossing over and shuffling of genes during meiosis.
trait
Each variant of a character.
secondary structure
Either an alpha helix or beta pleated sheet.
comparative embryology
Embryos of vertebrates share many anatomical homologies.
per capita death rate
Expected number of deaths in a population in a specified period of time.
genus
First part of scientific name.
reduction
Gain of electrons.
tryiacylglycerol
Glycerol and three fatty acids.
diploid cell
Has two sets of chromosomes.
coenzyme
If the cofactor is an organic molecule.
what are plasma cells?
Immune cells developed from B lymphocytes; Function to produce antibodies that fight against foreign substances, primary immune response 10-17 days
polyploidy
In plants, the result of an extra set of chromosomes during cell division.
imprinting
Includes both learning and innate components, generally irreversible.
cerebral cortex
Interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
antibiotics
Interfere with production of peptidoglycan; harm bacteria but not eukaryotes.
ligaments
Join bones to bones at joints.
free energy
Measures the portion of a system's energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system, as in a living cell.
This class of DNA codes for the three largest ribosomal RNA molecules...
Multi-gene family
nonpolar
No partial charges. Do not mix with water.
infant mortality
Number of infant deaths per thousand live births.
haploid
One set of chromosomes.
solute
Something dissolved in a solution.
How do you best present data collected in an experiment?
Tables and graphs
locus
The specific site of a particular gene on its chromosome.
digestion
To break apart.
species richness
Total number of different species.
The Law of Segregation
Two alleles separate during gamete formation and end up in different gametes because they are on on homologous chromosomes.
Müllerian mimicry
Two or more unpalatable species resemble each other.
Competitive Exclusion Principle
Two species competing for same limiting resource cannot coexist in one place; one species will have an advantage that will eventually lead to competitive exclusion
what is the universal donor?
Type O
semiconservative model
Type of DNA replication in which the replicated double helix consists of one old strand, derived from the old molecule, and one newly made strand.
What are the characteristics of protists?
Unicellular eukaryotes, simple multicellular relatives.
bioremediation
Use of living organisms such as prokaryotes, fungi, or plants to detoxify polluted ecosystems.
Gram stain
Used to classify prokaryotes based on cell wall composition. Important for antibiotics; some antibiotics work on one but not the other.
zero population growth (ZPG)
When per capita birth and death rates are equal. (r = 0)
what is the first line of nonspecific defense?
a barrier that helps prevent pathogens from entering the body
Which small-scale mutation would be most likely to have a catastrophic effect on the functioning of a protein?
a base deletion near the start of a gene
what are emergent properties of organized matter?
a compound has characteristics different from those of its elements
what is a single bond?
a covalent bond made up of one pair of shared electrons
What does a chromosome consist of?
a highly coiled and condensed strand of DNA, a replicated one consists of two sister chromatids, where one is an exact copy of the other
what is a pathway?
a series of metabolic reactions to perfrom a function
what is a fixed action pattern?
a stereotypical response to a certain stimuli that is exhibited by all members of a species
The oxygen consumed during cellular respiration is involved directly in which process or event?
accepting electrons at the end of the electron transport chain
what is ground state?
all the electrons in an atom are in the lowest available energy levels
what elements are inert?
the noble gases
what are microfilaments?
also called actin filaments help support the shape of the cell, allow animals to form a cleavage furrow during cell division, allow amoeba to move by sending out pseudopods, and allow skeletal muscles to contract as they slide along myosin filaments
what is glycerol?
an alcohol
What is the structural feature that allows DNA to replicate?
antiparallel
what is the most important buffer in human blood?
bicarbonate ion
what does DNA polymerase do?
builds a new strand from 5' to 3' and adds nucleotides to the 3' end of a pre-existing chain
How does a noncompetitive inhibitor decrease the rate of an enzyme reaction?
by changing the shape of the enzyme's active site.
what are common polysaccharides?
cellulose, starch, chitin, glycogen
Bilateral symmetry, deutrostome. An example is a frog.
chordata
what is independent assortment?
chromosomes separate randomly
what is the first electron shell?
closest to nucleus, lowest potential energy the higher electron shells have more energy
All organisms in the kingdom contain stinging cells.
cnidaria
Radial symmetry, diploblastic.
cnidaria
what are organic compounds?
contain carbon
where does glycolysis occur?
cytoplasm, and it does not require oxygen
what did Hershey and Chase do?
did experiments do prove DNA as the gentic material
Bilateral symmetry in the larval stage, radial symmetry as an adult, deutrostome, endoskeleton.
echinodermata
what are energy levels?
electron states of potential energy
what are neutrophils?
engulf microbes and die within a few days
How are chemical reactions coupled?
exergonic ones power endogonic ones
The mechanism in which the end product of a metabolic pathway inhibits an earlier step in the pathway is most precisely described as
feedback inhibition.
During aerobic respiration, electrons travel downhill in which sequence?
food to NADH to electron transport chain to oxygen
Which of the following is best characterized as being eukaryotic, heterotrophic, and having cell walls made of chitin?
fungi.
daily torpor
in small mammals and birds, daily lowering of metabolism that allows them to survive on stored energy
what is a nucleolus?
in the nucleus of a cell in interphase and is where ribosomes are synthesized one or two may be visible
what are phagocytes?
ingest invading microbes, there are two types: neutrophils and monocytes
what are the three stages of translation?
initiation, elongation, termination
what is surface tension?
insects can walk on water without breaking the surface because of cohesion
The active site of an enzyme is the region that
is involved in the catalytic reaction of the enzyme.
What occurred after Charles Darwin published the On the Origin of the Species?
it was a bestseller and Darwinism became synonymous with evolution
what hand are all amino acids?
left-handed compounds
codons
mRNA base triplets.
what happens in initiation of translation?
mRNA becomes attached to the subunit of the ribosome, and the first codon is always AUG, which codes for methione
what are MHC molecules?
major histocompatibility complex molecules, also called HLA (human leukocyte antigens) a collection of cell surface markers that identify the cells as self
how can one calculate number of neutrons in an atom?
mass number-atomic number
what is immunological memory?
mechanism that prevents you from getting chicken pox more than once
what are the three classes of carbs?
monosaccahrides-C6H12O6 disaccharides-C12H22O11, two monos join and release 1 water in dehydration synthesis/condensation
what does matter have a natural tendency to do?
move to the area of lowest potential energy
Given diagrams of molecules, know which would be soluble in water
nonionic polar compounds and ionic compounds
what do nonpolar molecules dissolve in?
nonpolar substances and olar dissolves in polar
what are lipids?
nonpolar, hydrophobic
what is atomic number?
number of protons/electrons an element has
why is ADP stable?
one phosphate is removed from ATP by hydrolysis
One function of both alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation is to
oxidize NADH to NAD+
According to the Hardy- Weinberg equation, the dominant trait is represented by..
p
What molecules will form hydrogen bonds with water?
polar molecules
what is hydrogen bonding?
positive hydrogen attracted to negative oxygen it's responsible for the properties of water
what is cytokinesis?
process in which cytoplasm and its content separate into equal parts
phagocytosis
process in which extensions of cytoplasm surround and engulf large particles and take them into the cell
what is transcription?
process in which part of the nucleotide sequence of DNA is copied into a complementary sequence in RNA
what is apoptosis?
programmed destruction of cells by their own hydroletic enzymes
what did Watson and Crick do?
proposed the double helix structure of DNA
what did Rosalind Franklin do?
showed DNA to be a helix, findings were critical to Watson and Crick
what are vacuoles?
single, membrane-bound structures for storage tiny vacuoles are called vesicles
Which of the following help(s) to hold the DNA strands apart while they are being replicated?
single-strand binding proteins
SKIP
skip
what is a wobble?
some tRNA have anticodons that can recognize many amino acids
what is learning?
sophisticated process in which the responses of the organism are modified as a result of experience capacity to learn can be tie to length of life span and complexity of the brain
what are releasers?
stimuli are exchanged between members of the same species
what are the 3 types of isomers and how do compounds differ?
structural-differ in arrangement of atoms geometric-differ in spatial arrangement around double bonds optical/enantiomers-mirror images of each other (left hand and right hand compounds do not perform the same function)
what is atomic mass?
sum of 3 of protons+#of neutrons in an atom
Which of the following occurs in meiosis but not in mitosis?
synapsis of chromosomes
what happens in DNA replication?
the double helix unzips and each strand serves as a template for the formation of a new strand composed of complementary nucleotides: A to T and C to G
what is a mitochondria?
the power house of the cell and site of cellular respiration Energy organelle enclosed by a double membrane(Inner infolded membrane is called the cristae )
turgor pressure
the pressure that is exerted on the inside of cell walls and that is caused by the movement of water into the cell
What do an elements properties depend upon?
the structure of its atoms
what is a solute?
the substance being dissolved
what is metabolism?
the sum of all chemical reactions that take place in cells
osmotic potential
the tendency of water to move across a permeable mebrane into a solution
one gene-one polypeptide hypothesis
there is one gene that codes for one polypeptide
Which is not true of Protista?
they do not have internal membranes.
why do atoms bond?
to acquire stable configuration, complete outer shell
what is helicase?
unwinds double stranded DNA at the replication fork
What is a dalton?
used to measure atoms and subatomic particles, in honor of John Dalton the 1800 father of atomic theory, same as atomic mass unit (amu)
Looking at the _____ pattern in the leaf can you tell if an angiosperm is a monocot or dicot
veins
what is anaphylactic shock?
when a person is hypersensitive to an allergen, histamine throughout entire body causes capillaries to leak, lowering blood pressure so dramatically that person goes into shock; can be fixed w/ adrenalin
what is theta replication?
when bacteria can replicate their DNA in both directions from a single point of origin
what are the protein shapes?
-alpha helix (keratin in hair) -beta pleated sheet (silk and spider webs) proteins that exhibit one or both of these are called fibrous proteins
pinocytosis
"cell-drinking", uptake of large, dissolved particles. the membrane invaginates around the particles and encloses them in a vesicle
Clone
(1) A lineage of genetically identical individuals or cells. (2) In popular usage, a single individual organism that is genetically identical to another individual. (3) As a verb, to make one or more genetic replicas of an individual or cell.
Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck
(1744-1829) Principle of use and disuse: the idea that parts of the body that are used extensively become larger and stronger, while those that are not used deteriorate. Principle of inheritance of acquired characteristics: an organism could pass modifications to its offspring.
what happens in meiosis 2?
(Similar to mitosis) Cells divide again, sister chromatids separate and each cell produces 2 more new cells, different from the parent cell
In the mitochondria, the energy from "food" molecules (such as glucose) that are partially broken down in the cytosol are converted to: (a) ATP (b) CTP (c) GTP (d) TTP (e) UTP
(a) ATP
Segregation of alleles occurs: (a) during gamete formation (b) at fertilization (c) during mitosis (d) during the random combination of gametes to produce the F2 generation (e) only in monohybrid crosses
(a) during gamete formation
When exposed to extreme heat, the human body relies on _______ to absorb excess heat and maintain normal body temperature. (a) evaporation (b) condensation (c) respiration (d) transpiration (e) all of the above
(a) evaporation
Sweating is a useful cooling device for humans because water: (a) takes up a great deal of heat in changing from its liquid state to its gaseous state (b) has little cohesion strength (c) has little hydrogen bonding (d) is an outstanding solvent (e) ionizes readily
(a) takes up a great deal of heat in changing from its liquid state to its gaseous state
In the photosynthetic formation of ATP, the enzyme ATP synthase couples the synthesis of ATP to: (a) the diffusion of protons (b) the reduction of NADP+ (c) the excitation of chlorophyll (d) the reduction of chlorophyll (e) CO2 fixation
(a) the diffusion of protons
Which of the following is the driving force for active transport? (a) concentration gradient (b) ATP hydrolysis (c) ADP hydrolysis (d) Phosphorylation (e) GTP-GDP exchange
(b) ATP hydrolysis
In condensation reactions, the atoms that make up a water molecule are derived from: (a) oxygen (b) only one of the reactants (c) both of the reactants (d) carbohydrates (e) enzymes
(c) both of the reactants
When hydrogen ions are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix across the inner membrane into the intermembranous space, the result is the: (a) formation of ATP (b) reduction of NAD+ (c) creation of a proton gradient (d) restoration of the NA+-K+ balance across the membrane (e) reduction of glucose to lactic acid
(c) creation of a proton gradient
Which of the following traits or functions are the same in muscle cells and gut cells? (a) cell function (b) local cell environment (c) expressed genes (d) genome (e) proteins formed
(d) Genome
A bacterial cell gives rise to two genetically identical daughter cells by a process known as: (a) nondisjunction (b) mitosis (c) meiosis (d) binary fission (e) fertilization
(d) binary fission
The cytoskeleton consists of: (a) cilia, flagella, and microfilaments (b) cilia, microtubules, and microfilaments (c) internal cell walls (d) microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments (e) calcified microtubules
(d) microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments
The DNA of prokaryotic cells is found in the: (a) plasma membrane (b) nucleus (c) ribosome (d) nucleoid region (e) mitochondria
(d) nucleoid region
Which of the following is represented by the phylogenic tree? (a) there are three groups of Eukarya (b) protists and bacteria have no common ancestor (c) plants and fungi have a more recent common ancestor than plants and animals do (d) plants, fungi, and animals are descendants of different microbial eukaryotic ancestors (e) archaea is the evolutionary ancient group
(d) plants, fungi, and animals are descendants of different microbial eukaryotic ancestors
Chloroplasts are the structures in which: (a) chemical energy is stored in the form of ATP (b) cell division is controlled (c) genetic information is used to make proteins (d) sunlight energy is converted into chemical energy (e) new organelles
(d) sunlight energy is converted into chemical energy
During cyclic electron transport, the energy to produce ATP is provided by: (a) heat (b) NADPH (c) ground-state chlorophyll (d) the electron transport chain of Photosystem II (e) the Calvin cycle
(d) the electron transport chain of Photosystem II
At the end of the first meiotic division, each chromosome consists of: (a) chiasmata (b) a homologous chromosome pair (c) four copies of each DNA molecule (d) two chromatids (e) a pair of polar microtubules
(d) two chromatids
In the simple Mendelian monohybrid cross, true-breeding tall plants are crossed with short plants, and the F1 plants, which are all tall, are allowed to self-pollinate. What fraction of the F2 generation are both tall and heterozygous? (a) 1/8 (b) 1/4 (c) 1/3 (d) 2/3 (e) 1/2
(e) 1/2
The energy to move chromosomes during mitosis is provided by: (a) centrioles (b) DNA polymerization (c) migration of the centrosomes (d) formation of the cell plate (e) ATP
(e) ATP
The light reactions of photosynthesis provides the Calvin cycle with: (a) protons and electrons (b) CO2 and glucose (c) water and photons (d) light and chlorophyll (e) ATP and NADPH
(e) ATP and NADPH
The Calvin cycle uses ____ to produce glucose. (a) CO2 (b) ATP (c) NADPH (d) rubisco (e) All of the above.
(e) All of the above.
In noncyclic photophosphorylation, electrons from ____ replenish chlorophyll molecules that have given up electrons. (a) CO2 (b) water (c) NADPH + H+ (d) O2 gad (e) None of the above
(e) None of the above
Photosynthesis and respiration have which of the following in common? (a) In eukaryotes, both processes reside in specialized rganelles. (b) ATP synthesis in both processes relies on the chemiosmotic mechanism. (c) Both involve electron transport (d) both require light (e) a, b, and c
(e) a, b, and c
The plasma membrane of a cell: (a) separates the cell from its environment (b) regulates what goes into and out of the cell (c) helps maintain a constant internal environment (d) communicates with adjacent cells (e) all of the above
(e) all of the above
In addition to the bilayer lipids and proteins, membranes may contain _______ in the form of ____ and _____. (a) nucleic acids; DNA; RNA (b) carbohydrates; cellulose; starch (c) triglycerides; fats; oils (d) nucleotides; ATP; GTP (e) carbohydrates; glycoprotiens; glycolipids
(e) carbohydrates; glycoproteins; glycolipids
Glycolysis: (a) takes place in the mitochondrion (b) produces no ATP (c) has no connection with the respiratory chain (d) is the same thing as fermentation (e) reduces two molecules of NAD+ for every glucose molecule processed
(e) reduces two molecules of NAD+ for every glucose molecule processed
isotonic
(used of solutions) having the same or equal osmotic pressure
what causes mutations?
- spontaneous errors during DNA replication - physical or chemical agents ex) x rays, carcinogens and chemicals
what are the two classes of MHC molecules?
-Class I MHC molecules: expressed by nearly all nucleated cells of vertebrate species -Class II MHC molecule: express only by antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
Why does the existence of a phosphorylated intermediate help drive a chemical reaction? A. It is less stable than the products. B. It has less energy in its phosphate bonds than the product does. C. It has more energy in its phosphate bonds than the product does. D. It is more stable than the products. E. It has more phosphates than the product does.
A. It is less stable than the products.
Name a human trait that is no longer considered a classic Mendelian trait. A. eye color B. cystic fibrosis C. cleft chin D. sickle-cell disease E. hemophilia A
A. eye color
What do spectrophotometers measure? A. light absorption B. action spectra C. chlorophyll concentration D. color of a medium E. None of the answers are correct.
A. light absorption
Which photosynthesis process does NOT yield ATP molecules? A. the carbon-fixation reactions B. the light-dependent reactions C. cyclic electron flow D. linear electron flow E. All answers are correct.
A. the carbon-fixation reactions
what does active transport require?
ATP
Figure: ATP Cycle. Question: Which of the following is the most correct interpretation of the figure?
ATP is a molecule that acts as an intermediary to store energy for cellular work.
aneuploidy
Abnormal number of chromosomes.
chromosome theory of inheritance
According to this theory, genes are carried from parents to their offspring on chromosomes.
proximate questions
Address environmental stimuli, genetic, physiological, and anatomical causes of a behavior.
ultimate questions
Address evolutionary significance of a behavior.
F2 Generation
After the self-pollenization of the F1 generation, this is produced.
life tables
Age-specific summaries of survival patterns of a population.
reproductive table (fertility schedule)
Age-specific summary of reproductive rates in a population.
polygenic inheritance
An additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character.
Phylogenetic Bracketing
An approach in which features shared by two groups of organisms are predicted (by parsimony) to be present in their common ancestor and all of its descendants.
Cladistics
An approach to systematics in which organisms are placed into groups called clades based primaily on common decent
potential range
An area where an organism could potentially survive and reproduce.
disturbance
An event, such as storm, fire, flood, drought, overgrazing or human activity, that changes a community and alters resource availability.
What is meant by a controlled experiment?
An experimental group compared with a control group that only has one changing variable
clone
An identical genetically individual of the parent
polygamous
An individual of one sex mating with several of the other.
DNA Fingerprint
An individual's unique collection of DNA restriction fragments, detected by electrophoresis and nucleic acid probes.
GABA
An inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.
biological clock
An innate mechanism in living organisms that controls the periodicity of many physiological functions.
genetic map
An ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome.
homoplasies
Analogous structures that have evolved independently.
systematics
Analytical approach to understanding the diversity and relationships of present and past organisms.
endosymbiotic theory
Ancestors of mitochondria and plastids was prokaryotes that came to live in a host cell.
Fauna
Animal life; especially : the animals characteristic of a region, period, or special environment
actual evapotranspiration
Annual amount of water transpired by plants and evaporated from landscape.
Farmers must plant wheat each year because wheat is a(an) _____
Annual plant
cancer
Any malignant growth or tumor caused by abnormal and uncontrolled cell division.
Maximum Likelihood
As applied to molecular systematics, a principle that states when considering multiple phylogentic hypotheses, one should take into account the hypothesis that reflects the most likely sequence of evolutionary events, given certain rules about how DNA changes over time.
where does replication begin?
At the origin; Dna A- a protein will bind to the origin. Replication begins at the origin and moves out from there in two directions to produce replication forks.
producer
Autotroph.
Typically, in tropical climates, which types of plants are dominant? A. C3 plants B. C4 plants C. C3 and C4 plants D. CAM plants E. C3 and CAM plants
B. C4 plants
Why do the leaves of most plants appear green? A. The atmosphere filters out all colors of visible wavelengths except green. B. Green light is the least absorbed wavelength by the chlorophyll pigments. C. Green light is the most efficient wavelength on the action spectrum of most plants. D. Photosynthesis will be its most productive in green light. E. None of the answers are correct.
B. Green light is the least absorbed wavelength by the chlorophyll pigments.
In the process of alcoholic fermentation, what causes the liquid to bubble? A. oxygen B. carbon dioxide C. nitrogen D. alcohol E. sugar
B. carbon dioxide
Which of the following is an individual unit of fats? A. amino acids B. glycerol C. glucose D. sucrose E. adenine
B. glycerol
What is the sum of all the chemical reactions that occur in an organism called? A. catabolism B. metabolism C. synthesis D. exergonic E. catalysis
B. metabolism
Which of the following atoms has the highest electronegativity? A. sulfur B. oxygen C. hydrogen D. nitrogen E. carbon
B. oxygen
reproductive isolation
Barriers that impede members of two different species fro producing fertile offspring.
postzygotic barriers
Barriers that prevent the hybrid zygote from becoming a fertile adult.
Nucleic Acid Hybridization
Base pairing between a gene and a complementary sequence on another nucleic acid molecule.
pyrimidines
Bases with a single-ring structure.
Why do larger organisms like humans, need a circulatory system?
Because our cells need contact in the environment
How do you know that the species Ursus martitmus and Ursus arctos are closely related?
Because they belonged to the same genus, meaning that they are similar species.
what happens in meiosis 1?
Begins with a diploid cell that divides (homologous chromosomes separate) and produces two haploid cells with 1/2 of the number of chromosomes (sister chromatids are still together) as the parent cell
biogeographic realms
Broad patterns of distribution due to continental drift and barriers such as deserts and mountain ranges.
How does a karyotype differ from a family pedigree? A. A family pedigree is an older and more accurate tool compared to a karyotype. B. They are the same. C. A family pedigree is useful in identifying inherited diseases, but a karyotype is usually not. D. Family pedigrees require sample preparation in the lab; karyotypes do not. E. Karyotypes provide details about genes on individual chromosomes to better identify inherited diseases.
C. A family pedigree is useful in identifying inherited diseases, but a karyotype is usually not.
Which of these statements about genetic disorders is false? A. Genetic disorders may occur at the single-gene level. B. Mitochondrial DNA mutations may cause genetic disorders. C. All genetic disorders follow Mendelian inheritance patterns. D. Changes in number of complete chromosomes may be involved in genetic disorders. E. Parts of chromosomes may be translocated to other chromosomes in genetic disorders.
C. All genetic disorders follow Mendelian inheritance patterns.
How did Mendel determine the basic principles of inheritance? A. He was influenced by Darwin's theory of inheritance. B. As an avid gardener, he took observational data. C. He used experimentation, observation, and mathematical analysis. D. He took basic principles of inheritance from other scientists' published papers on inheritance. E. He applied Darwin's theory of evolution.
C. He used experimentation, observation, and mathematical analysis.
Why is it advantageous for the Calvin cycle to occur in bundle sheath cells in C4 plants? A. These cells lie deep within the leaf, and the amount of nitrogen that competes with carbon dioxide for RuBisCO is reduced. B. The bundle sheath cells do not contain RuBisCO. C. Oxygen cannot diffuse easily into bundle sheath cells. D. The Calvin cycle is more efficient in the bundle sheath cells than in other cells of the plant. E. Bundle sheath cells are grouped around leaf veins.
C. Oxygen cannot diffuse easily into bundle sheath cells.
What is the purpose of plastoquinone and plastocyanin in photosynthesis? A. They are the original source of electrons for the electron transport chain. B. They are the pigment molecules that transmit the energy of sunlight to electrons. C. They are electron carriers in the electron transport chain. D. They supply energy for the carbon-fixation reactions. E. They are combined to form one molecule of glucose.
C. They are electron carriers in the electron transport chain.
Which statement regarding obligate anaerobes is true? A. They can survive in the presence or absence of oxygen. B. They require oxygen to survive. C. They cannot survive in the presence of oxygen. D. They can produce glucose. E. They require carbon dioxide to survive.
C. They cannot survive in the presence of oxygen.
In a C4 plant, what is the first molecule that carbon dioxide reacts with? A. malate B. pyruvate C. phosphoenolpyruvate D. oxaloacetate E. RuBisCO
C. phosphoenolpyruvate
NAD+ becomes NADH by which kind of reaction? A. respiration B. phosphorylation C. reduction D. oxidation E. fermentation
C. reduction
Which of the following statements describes the results of this reaction? C6H12O6 + 6O2 yields 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
C6H12O6 is oxidized and O2 is reduced.
facultative anaerobes
Can make enough ATP to survive using using fermentation or respiration.
cellulose
Carbohydrate component of plant cell walls.
foundation species
Cause physical changes in environment that affect community structure.
abdominal cavity
Cavity housing intestines.
mitosis
Cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes.
cell differentiation
Cell specialization in structure and function.
columnar epithelium
Cells shaped like bricks standing on end.
squamous epithelium
Cells that are like floor tiles.
chondrocytes
Cells that secrete cartilage.
primary structure
Chain of amino acids.
genetic drift
Change in allele frequencies due to chance.
microevolution
Change in genetic makeup of a population from generation to generation.
heterochrony
Change in the rate or timing of a developmental event ; an organism's shape depends on relative growth rate of body parts.
translocation
Change to a chromosome in which a fragment of one chromosome attaches to a nonhomologous chromosome.
mutation
Changes in the nucleotide sequence in DNA.
voltage-gated ion channels
Channels that open or close in response to a change in the membrane potential.
discrete characteristics
Characteristics that are classified on an either-or basis, determined by a single gene locus.
quantitative characteristics
Characteristics that vary along a continuum, usually due to influence of two or more genes.
quantitative characters
Characters that vary in the population along a continuum (in gradations).
What is the principal of common descent?
Charles Darwin's theory that, organisms share common descent if they have living organisms on Earth that are descended from a common ancestor
neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.
The differentiation of cells is not reversible because it involves...
Chemical modifications of histones and DNA methylation.
cytokines
Chemicals released by the immune system communicate with the brain.
Hox genes
Class of homeotic genes. Changes in these genes can have a profound impact on morphology.
transcription factors
Collection of proteins that mediate the binding of RNA polymerase and the initiation of transcription.
colonies
Collections of autonomously replicating cells.
acetylcholine
Common vertebrate neurotransmitter, especially in neuromuscular junctions.
nonequilibrium model
Communities are constantly changing after being buffeted by disturbances.
Giraffes have the same number of vertebrae in the neck as do humans.
Comparative Anatomy
Human embryos have tails.
Comparative Embryology
Humans and stars both have radial cleavage in early embryonic development.
Comparative Embryology
Humans can be made temporarily immune to various human diseases by receiving antibodies against those diseases from horses.
Comparative biochemistry
Kangaroos are found only in Australia.
Comparative distribution
agonistic behavior
Competition that determines who wins a prize, such as food or mates.
ribosomes
Complex particles that facilitate the orderly linking of amino acids into polypeptide chains.
dehydration synthesis
Condensation reaction where molecules are connected by loss of a water molecule.
axon hillock
Cone shaped region of an axon where it joins the cell body.
McCarty, Avery, & MacLeod
Confirmed that the transforming agent in Griffith's experiment was DNA.
blood
Connective tissue made of plasma, erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.
kinetochore microtubules
Connects the centrosome with the kinetochore in the centromere region of the chromosome.
addition rule
Considering mutually exclusive events, the probability of both occurring is the sum of the probabilities of each event.
gene expression
Conversion of the information encoded in a gene first into messenger RNA and then to a protein.
A lack of this non protein molecule results in the inability of a cell to "turn off"...
Corepressor
Recombination between linked genes comes about for what reason?
Crossovers between these genes result in chromosomal exchange.
Type III
Curve that drops sharply at the start then levels off once individuals reach a critical age, as seen in organisms that produce large numbers of offspring.
Type II
Curve that represents constant death rate over lifespan small animals and invertebrates.
Type I
Curve that shows low death rate at early and mid-life and drops at old age, as seen in humans and large animals.
what is the equation for aerobic respiration?
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ --> 6H₂O + 6CO₂ + energy
What type of genetic cross demonstrates both the principles of segregation and independent assortment? A. a monohybrid cross B. a cross between two purebred organisms for a single gene C. a self-fertilization in a flowering plant D. a dihybrid cross E. The two principles cannot be demonstrated in a single type of cross.
D. A dihybrid cross
Which of these inheritance patterns involves interaction of more than one gene? A. codominance B. pleiotropy C. environmental effects D. epistasis E. incomplete dominance
D. epistasis
The evolution of aerobic life occurred after an increase in which of the following? A. nitrogen B. water C. light energy D. oxygen E. carbon dioxide
D. oxygen
what are the four steps of mitosis?
-prophase -metaphase -anaphase -telophase
Given an electron dot diagram of a chemical reaction, what are the overall charges of products
...
What hydrocarbon will have double bonds in its carbon synthesis?
1-butene, 2- butene
what are the elctron shell orbital shapes?
1-one spherical s orbital (1s) 2-1 large spherical s orbital (2s), and three dumbell shaped p orbitals (2p)
what are interferons?
1. inhibits viral replication 2. inhibits cell proliferation 3. increases lytic potential of natural killer cells 4. modulates (increases or decreases) MHC molecule expression
A typical blood pressure reading for a healthy teen is ______
120/80
What is the maximum number of electrons in a single 2p orbital of an atom?
2
how many of the 92 elements are essential to life?
25
Complementary DNA (cDNA)
A DNA molecule made in vitro using mRNA as a template and the enzyme reverse transcriptase. A cDNA molecule therefore corresponds to a gene, but lacks the introns present in the DNA of the genome.
recombinant DNA
A DNA molecule made in vitro with segments from different sources.
R plasmid
A bacterial plasmid carrying genes that confer resistance to certain antibiotics.
innate behavior
A behavior that is developmentally fixed.
parasympathetic division
A branch of the autonomic nervous system that maintains normal body functions; it calms the body ever conserves energy.
Phylogenetic Tree
A branching diagram that represents a hypothesis about the evolutionary history of a group of organisms.
turgid
A cell with a cell wall that has a reasonable amount of pressure but is healthy.
what is a mutation?
A change in an organism's genetic makeup.
taxonomy
A classification of organisms into groups based on similarities.
Expression Vector
A cloning vector that contains the requisite prokaryotic promoter just upstream of a restriction site where a eukaryotic gene can be inserted.
expression vector
A cloning vector that contains the requisite prokaryotic promoter just upstream of a restriction site where a eukaryotic gene can be inserted.
yeast artificial chromosome (YAC)
A cloning vector that has telomeres and a centromere that can accommodate large DNA inserts and uses the eukaryote yeast as a host cell.
cyclic AMP (cAMP)
A compound formed from ATP that acts as a second messenger.
binary fission
A form of asexual reproduction in single-celled organisms by which one cell divides into two cells of the same size.
cline
A graded change in a trait along a geographic axis.
complement system
A group of about 30 blood proteins that may amplify the inflammatory response, enhance phagocytosis, or directly lyse extracellular pathogens.
cohort
A group of individuals of the same age.
Clade
A group of species that includes an ancestral species and all of its descendants
gametes
A haploid cell such as an egg or sperm that unite during sexual reproduction to produce a diploid zygote.
vaccine
A harmless variant or derivative of a pathogen that stimulates a host's immune system to mount defenses against the pathogen.
Plantae
A kingdom made up of complex, multicellular organisms that are usually green, have cell walls made of cellulose, cannot move around, and use the sun's energy to make sugar by photosynthesis.
entropy
A measure of disorder or randomness.
what is electronegativity?
A measure of the attraction an atom has for electrons in a covalent bond the more electronegative an atom is, the more strongly it pulls shared electrons toward itself
map units
A measurement of the distance between genes; one map unit is equivalent to a 1 percent recombination frequency.
serotonin
A neurotransmitter that affects hunger,sleep, arousal, and mood.
tetrad
A pair of chromosomes form tetrads made up of four chromatids.
fermentation
A partial degradation of sugars that occur without the use of oxygen.
active site
A pocket or groove on the surface of the enzyme.
activator
A protein that binds to DNA and stimulates transcription of a specific gene.
haplo diploid system
A sex determination system in most species of bees and ants in which there are no sex chromosomes. Females develop from fertilized eggs (diploid) and males develop from unfertilized eggs (haploid).
XY system
A sex determination system in which females have two of the same kind of sex chromosome and males have two different ones.
Homoplasy
A similar structure or molecular sequence that has evolved independently in two species.
Sticky End
A single-stranded end of a double-stranded DNA restriction fragment.
sticky end
A single-stranded end of a double-stranded DNA restriction fragment.
plasmid
A small ring of DNA that carries accessory genes separate from those of a bacterial chromosome; also found in some eukaryotes, such as yeast.
kinetochore
A specialized region on the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle.
Outgroup
A species or group of species from an evolutionary lineage that is known to have diverged before the lineage that contains the group of species being studied. An outgroup is selected so that its members are closely related to the group of species being studied, but not as closely related as any study-group members are to each other.
Ingroup
A species or group of species whose evolutionary relationships we seek to determine.
promoter
A specific nucleotide sequence in DNA that binds RNA polymerase and indicates where to start transcribing mRNA.
Restriction Site
A specific sequence on a DNA strand that is recognized as a "cut site" by a restriction enzyme.
signal peptide
A stretch of amino acids on a polypeptide that targets the protein to a specific destination in a eukaryotic cell.
centrosome
A structure in animal cells containing centrioles from which the spindle fibers develop.
culture
A system of information transfer through influential social learning or teaching.
Kingdom
A taxonomic category, the second broadest after domain.
polyphyletic group
A taxonomic grouping consisting of several species that lack a common ancestor (more work is needed to uncover species that tie them together into a monophyletic clade).
monophyletic group
A taxonomic grouping that includes an ancestral species and all of its descendants.
clade
A taxonomic grouping that includes only a single ancestor and all of its descendants.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
A technique for amplifying DNA in vitro by incubating with special primers, DNA polymerase molecules, and nucleotides.
In Vitro Mutagenesis
A technique to discover the function of a gene by introducing specific changes into the sequence of a cloned gene, reinserting the mutated gene into the cell, and studying the phenotype of the mutant.
Electroporation
A technique to introduce recombinant DNA into cells by applying a brief electrical pulse to a solution containing cells. The electricity creates temporary holes in the cells' plasma membranes, through which DNA can enter.
RNA Interference (RNAi)
A technique to silence the expression of selected genes in non mammalian organisms. The method uses synthetic double-stranded RNA molecules matching the sequence of a particular gene to trigger the breakdown of the gene's messenger RNA.
endospore
A thick-walled protective spore that forms inside a bacterial cell and resists harsh conditions.
chromosomes
A threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus. Consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins.
electrogenic pump
A transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane, causing a net separation in charge.
transposon
A transposable genetic element that moves within a genome by means of a DNA intermediate.
what is structural formula?
A two-dimensional notation in which the chemical symbols for the constituent atoms are joined by straight lines representing single, double, or triple bonds
pinocytosis
A type of endocytosis in which the cell "gulps" droplets of fluid into tiny vesicles.
Understand the base pairing rules in a DNA strand?
A-T. C-G
B cell receptor
The antigen receptor on B cells: a Y-Shaped, membrane-bound molecule consisting of two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains linked by disulfide bridges and containing two antigen-binding sites.
density dependent inhibition
The arrest of cell division that occurs when cells grown in a laboratory dish touch one another.
According to the induced fit hypothesis of enzyme catalysis, which of the following is correct?
The binding of the substrate changes the shape of the enzyme's active site.
humoral immune response
The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of B cells and that leads to the production of antibodies, which defend against bacteria and viruses in body fluids.
cell-mediated immune response
The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of cytotoxic T cells, which defend against infected cells.
Molecular Biology
The branch of biology that studies the structure and activity of macromolecules essential to life (and especially with their genetic role)
What are the Themes of Biology? with example
The cell, heritable information, properties of biological systems regulation, interaction with environment, energy and life
immunization
The deliberate exposure of a pathogen to produce memory cells.
pattern formation
The development of a spatial organization of tissues and organs.
dialysis
The diffusion of small solutes through a selectively permeable membrane.
G1 phase
The first gap, or growth phase, of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins.
stroma
The fluid of the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane; involved in the synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water.
What does bacterial mating involve?
The formation of a cytoplasmic bridge to transfer male DNA.
Allopatric Specialization
The formation of new species in populations that are geographically isolated from one another.
Sympatric Specialization
The formation of new species in populations that live in the same geographic area.
production efficiency
The fraction of energy stored in food that was not used for cell respiration.
restriction fragment
The fragment of DNA that is produced by cleaving DNA with a restriction enzyme.
intercellular joining
The function of membrane proteins in which membrane proteins of adjacent cells hook together, as in gap junctions or tight junctions.
cell-cell recognition
The function of membrane proteins in which some glycoproteins serve as ID tags that are recognized by membrane proteins of other cells.
F1 Generation
The hybrid offspring of true-breeding parents.
Neutral Theory
The hypothesis that much evolutionary change in genes and proteins has no effect on fitness and therefore is not influenced by natural selection.
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)
The infectious agent that causes AIDS. HIV is a retrovirus.
primary transcript
The initial mRNA transcript that is transcribed from a protein coding gene. Also called pre-mRNA.
host range
The limited range of host cells that each type of virus can infect and parasitize.
Biotechnology
The manipulation of living organisms or their components to produce useful products.
Comparative Anatomy
The molecular approach helps us understand phylogenetic relationships that cannot be determined by non-molecular methods.
positional information
The molecular cues that control pattern formation.
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
The most advanced, and fatal, stage of an HIV infection.
glutamate
The most common neurotransmitter in the brain. Excitatory.
clumped dispersion
The most common pattern of dispersion; individuals aggregated in patches.
cytoplasmic streaming
The motion of cytoplasm in a cell that results in a coordinated movement of the cell's contents.
P generation
The name for the true-breeding parents.
synaptic cleft
The narrow gap that separates the presynaptic neuron from the postsynaptic cell.
brainstem
The oldest part and central core of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions.
genome
The ordering of genes in a haploid set of chromosomes of a particular organism.
what is the valence shell?
The outermost electron shell of an atom
sympathetic division
The part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to deal with perceived threats.
autonomic nervous system
The part of the nervous system of vertebrates that controls involuntary actions of the smooth muscles and heart and glands.
uniform dispersion
The pattern in which individuals are equally spaced throughout a habitat.
water potential
The physical property predicting the direction in which water will flow, governed by solute concentration and applied pressure.
depolarization
The process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive.
cell division
The process in reproduction and growth by which a cell divides to form daughter cells.
cleavage
The process of cytokinesis in animal cells, characterized by pinching of the plasma membrane; specifically.
what is oogenesis?
The production of female gametes occuring in the ovaries. Gamete is a polar body made by meiotic division with a nucelus, cytoplasm, RNA, organelles, nutrients --> embryo.
Gene Cloning
The production of multiple copies of a gene.
relative abundance
The proportion of each species.
Which of the following statements is true about enzyme-catalyzed reactions?
The reaction is faster than the same reaction in the absence of the enzyme.
chromatin
The readily stainable substance of a cell nucleus consisting of DNA and RNA and various proteins.
cytoplasm
The region of the cell between the cell membrane and the nucleus.
centromere
The region of the chromosome that holds the two sister chromatids together during mitosis.
genetic recombination
The regrouping of genes in an offspring that results in a genetic makeup that is different from that of the parents.
Branch Point
The representation on a phylogenetic tree of the divergence of two or more taxa from a common ancestor. A branch point is usually shown as a dichotomy in which a branch representing the ancestral lineage splits into two branches, one for each of the two descendant lineages
testcross
The result of breeding a recessive homozygote with an organism of dominant phenotype but unknown genotype.
Paleontology
The scientific study of fossils.
ethology
The scientific study of how animals behave, particularly in natural environments.
G2 phase
The second growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occurs.
population density
The size of the population within a particular unit of space.
cytosol
The soluble portion of the cytoplasm, which includes molecules and small particles, such as ribosomes, but not the organelles covered with membranes.
gametophyte
The stage in the life cycle of a plant in which the plant produces gametes, or sex cells.
what are products?
The starting materials for chemical reactions are called reactants. The newly formed substances are called products. A formula would be NaCLNa+Cl- on the right side of the arrow
bioenergenetics
The study of how organisms manage their energy resources.
Embryology
The study of the development of a unicellular zygote into a complete multicellular organs.
energy coupling
The use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one.
what is a prophage?
The viral DNA that is embeded into the host's DNA in the lysogenic cycle
membrane potential
The voltage across a cell's plasma membrane.
behavior
The way an organism reacts to changes in its internal condition or external environment.
What does a "mother of pearl" and an Ocotello have in common?
They both adapted to the environment and have wax coating
connective tissue
Tissue that functions mainly to bind and support other tissues.
When genetic information is transferred from cell to cell, it is called...
Transduction
When naked DNA is taken up from the environment, it is called...
Transformation
heredity
Transmission of traits from one generation to the next.
passive transport
Transport of a substance across a cell membrane by diffusion. No cell energy required.
what are the nucleotides in RNA?
Uracil, Cytosine, Guanine, Adenine
species diversity
Variety of different kinds of organisms that make up a community.
microclimate
Very fine patterns of climate influenced by features of the environment such as shade ares and wind patterns.
adhesion
Water molecules sticking to other surfaces.
interstitial fluid
Watery, internal environment of vertebrates.
In the 1920s Muller discovered the X-rays caused mutation in Drosophila. In a related series of experiments in the 1940s, Charlotte Auerbach discovered the chemicals-she used nitrogen mustards- have a similar effect. A new chemical food additive is developed by a cereal manufacturer. Why do we test for its ability to induce mutation?
We want to prevent any increase in mutation frequency.
How would the body be affected if spongy bones had a dense solid structure like compact bone rather than a latticework structure?
We would have more mass and it would be harder to move
van der waals interactions
Weak attractions between molecules or parts of molecules that are brought about by localized charge fluctuations.
what is a viral envelope?
What viruses surround themselves with that, on the outside resemble host own cells, and helps virus avoid detection by immune system
active transport
When a cell gets materials or excretes them by using its own energy, usually through ATP; going against a concentration gradient.
what is chemical equilibrium?
When a chemical reaction moves at the same forward rate as backwards rate. The overall concentration of reactants and products does not change.
chemiosmosis
When energy is stored in the form of a hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane which is used to drive cellular work.
metapopulation
When many populations are linked.
alcohol fermentation
When pyruvate is converted to ethanol in 2 steps.
lactic acid fermetation
When pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to form lactic as am end product, with no release of carbon dioxide.
gametic isolation
When sperm can't fertilize the eggs.
reduced hybrid viability
When the genes of different species interact and impair hybrid development.
sex chromosomes
X and Y chromosomes.
chiasmata
X-shaped regions where crossing over occurred.
Red-green color blindness is a sex-linked recessive trait in humans. Two people with normal color vision have a color-blind son. What are the genotypes of the parents?
XCXc and XCY
what is the structure of an antibody?
Y shaped molecule, four polypeptide chains: two heavy identical chains and two light identical chains held together by a disulfide bond, four constant regions (C), and four variable regions (V)
Of the following, which is the most current description of a gene?
a DNA sequence that is expressed to form a functional product: either RNA or polypeptide
what is an ionic bond?
a chemical bond resulting from the attraction between ions of opposite charge. Because oppositely charged ions are attracted to each other, positively charged ions tend to remain close to negatively charged ions aka two atoms are so unequal in their attraction for valence electrons that the more electronegative atom strips an electron completely away from its partner ex: a relationship that doesn't work so much (because one is far more attracted than the other) that it works very well (the partner atom sucks it up and deals with it), Juliet and Raul
The average length of a rabbit's ears decreases the farther north the rabbits live. This variation is an example of
a cline.
what is a complement?
a group of proteins, that leads to the lysis (bursting) of invading cells
what is an insertion mutation?
a type of frameshift mutation, addition of a letter
what is a deletion?
a type of frameshift mutation, loss of a letter
what is a temperate virus?
a virus that can reproduce lyticly and lysogenicly
what is a retrovirus?
a virus that contain RNA as thei genetic information
what is a bacteriophage?
a virus that effects a bacterial cell.
what are atoms and what are they made up of?
a) building blocks of all matter b) protons, neutrons, electrons
what charge do elemental atoms have and why?
a)neutral charge b) the number of protons equals the number of electrons
what is an anion?
an atom that gains electrons/becomes more negative in ionic bonding
what is a cation?
an atom that loses electrons/becomes more positive in ionic bonding
what is gel electrophoresis?
an electrical current is used to separate a mixture of DNA fragments from each other
what is reverse transcriptase?
an enzyme carried inside the Retrovirus' capsid. Once inside the host cell, the retrovirus producees double-stranded DNA from its own RNA. Then the double-stranded viral DNA is integrated into the host cell's chromosome and becomes a provirus.
Allosteric enzyme regulation is usually associated with
an enzyme with more than one subunit.
where does cholesterol serve an important purpose?
animal plasma membrane
how are hydrogen and pH related?
as the H+ increases, pH decreases
what are cofactors?
assist enzymes
what is a chaperone protein?
assist in folding other proteins
Which of the following is not generally a characteristic of couples, advanced organisms?
bilateral symmetry
what is hydrolysis?
breakdown of a compound by adding water
what are some ways that cells communicate?
cell junctions, signal transduction pathways, and cell-to-cell recognition
what are polymorphic regions?
certain noncoding regions of DNA that are highly variable from one region to the next
what does the formation and function of molecules depend upon?
chemical bonding between atoms
point mutations
chemical changes in just one base pair of a gene
what does matter consist of?
chemical elements in pure form and in combinations called compounds (Concept 2.1)
what are NAD and FAD?
coenzymes that carry electrons (H+) along the ETC NAD and FAD are oxidized, NADH and FADH are reduced
Zinc, an essential trace element for most organisms, is present in the active site of the enzyme carboxypeptidase. The zinc most likely functions as a
cofactor necessary for enzyme activity.
what is a nucleus?
contains chromosomes wrapped with special proteins in a chromatin network and surrounded by a selectively permeable nuclear membrane envelope that contains pores to allow transport of larger molecules
what are the five types of social behavior?
cooperation, agnostic behavior, dominance hierarchies, territoriality, altruism
what are pyrimidines?
cytosine and thymine, which are held together by a triple hydrogen bond
what is substrate-level phosphorylation?
direct enzymatic transfer of a phosphate to ADP by kinase
In one region of New Jersey there exist two distinct types of one species of snake.
disruptive selection
what is simple diffusion?
does not involve protein channels, but facilitated diffusion does
who was Ivan Pavlov?
dog experiments concerning classical conditioning
what is a polar covalent bond?
electrons are shared unequally between two different atoms (C-O)
what is the theory of endosymbiosis?
eukaryotic cells emerged when mitochondria and chloroplasts took up permanent residence inside larger cells
Graph: The following questions are based on the reaction A + B ↔ C + D show in Figure 8.1. Question: Which of the following terms best describes the forward reaction in Figure 8.1?
exergonic, ∆G < 0
who was Konrad Lorenz?
famous for his work with imprinting
what is meiosis?
form of cell division that produces gametes with the haploid chromosome number (n) and has two parts meiosis 1 and meiosis 2, which is the same as mitosis
what is habituation?
form of learning in which there is a decrease in the response to a stimulus after repeated stimulation
Figure 12.2. Question: If the cell whose nuclear material is shown in Figure 12.2 continues toward completion of mitosis, which of the following events would occur next?
formation of telophase nuclei
What evidence is there that all life came from a common ancestor?
fossils
what are peroxisomes?
found in both plant and animal cells contain catalase detoxify alcohol in liver cells
what are steroids?
four-fused ring lipids, different from other lipids ex. testosterone, estradiol
Who synthesized proteinoid micro-spheres in the lab using an apparatus that mimicked the early earth?
fox
What can cause an angiosperm seedling to grow a long distance away from its parent plant?
from the movements by wind, water and insects
Which of the following pairs are the organisms most closely related?
fruit-fly and lobsters.
what do cytokines do?
further stimulate Th, B, and Tc cells
Table 12.1 Minutes Spent in Cell Cycle Phases: The data were obtained from a study of the length of time spent in each phase of the cell cycle by cells of three eukaryotic organisms designated beta, delta, and gamma. Question: Of the following, the best conclusion concerning the difference between the S phases for beta and gamma is that
gamma contains more DNA than beta.
Plants need to exchange _____ in order to carry out the process of photosynthesis and respiration
gas
what did griffith do?
he performed experiments with the bacteria Diplococcus pneumoniae and concluded that bacteria have the ability to transform harmless cells into virulent ones by transferring some gentic factor from one bacteria cell to another
what are buffers?
help systems maintain pH by absorbing excess H+ or donating H+ where there isn't enough
what is plastoquinone?
in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts is a mobile electron carrier
What causes goiter?
iodine deficiency
what is imprinting?
learning that occurs during a sensitive or critical period in the early life of an individual and is irreversible for the length of that period
How are fatty acids formed?
long carbons skeleton with carboxyl group attached to hydrocarbon chain
What is a polymer? and know examples
long molecule consisting of man similar monomer - polysaccharides
what do chemical reactions do?
make and break chemical bonds
what is the R plasmid?
makes the cell in which it is carried resistant to specific antibiotics
what is pH?
measure of the acidity and alkalinity of a solution negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration in moles per liter
what are antibiotics?
medicines that kill bacteria or fungi
what is the endoplasmic reticulum?
membranous system of channels and the flattened sacs that traverse the cytoplasm rough ER-site of protein synthesis smooth ER-steroid synthesis, connects rough ER to Golgi apparatus, detoxification
what is mRNA?
messanger RNA-RNA molecule tha carries copies of instructions for the assembly of amino acids into proteins from DNA to the rest of the cell.
what are the two types of cell division?
mitosis and meiosis
what is cohesion?
molecules of water attracting each other
What are examples of monomer/polymer pairing?
monosaccharaides & polysaccharides
what is active transport?
movement of molecules against a gradient, which requires energy, usually in the form of ATP
what is cell transport?
movement of substances into and out of the cell, can be active or passive
what is transpirational pull?
moving water up trees from roots to leaves without energy expenditure one molecule lost by leaf in transpiration, one is drawn in by the roots
how do electrons have potential energy?
negative neutrons are attracted to positive nucleus, so the farther an electron is away from the nucleus, the greater the potential energy
Which subatomic particle is electrically neutral?
neutron
What two subatomic particles form the atomic nucleus?
neutrons and protons
what are the subatomic particles?
neutrons, protons, electrons
what are prokaryotes?
no nucleus or other internal membranes (i.e. all bacteria)
how is water asymmetrical?
oxygen has a greater pull on the shared electrons than water, so one side of the molecule is positive and one is negative. Therefore, water is highly polar
what is an alkaline/base?
pH greater than 7
what is an acid?-
pH less than 7
what is translation also called?
polypeptide synthesis
what is an endothermic reaction?
potential energy of products greater than that of reactants so energy is absorbed
what is the purpose of cloning?
preserving endangered species, recreation superior organisms for agriculture, replacing damaged or sick organs.
Where on the globular protein would you find the amino acids serine and leucine?
primary structure in polypeptide chain
what is conformation?
protein's unique shape that determines its function
What contain amino acids? know examples
proteins
what did Meselsohn and Stahl do?
proved that DNA replicates in a semiconservative fashion
what is noncoding DNA?
regulatory sequences, introns
What is the function of topoisomerase?
relieving strain in the DNA ahead of the replication fork.
The condition in which there are barriers to successful interbreeding between individuals of different species in the same community is referred to as..
reproductive isolation
what are trace elements?
required by an organism in only minute qualities
what is the plasma membrane?
selectivey permeable mebrane that regulates the steady traffic that enters and leaves the cell fluid mosaic model-S.J. Singer integral proteins have nonpolar regions to let more molecules pass through and cholesterol stabilizes the membrane
Compare a hydrocarbon chain that has double bonds to one that does not
single bonds= bonds angles towards corresponds, double bonds= all bonds were in the same plane
what are some examples of first line non-specific defense?
skin, mucous membranes, cilia, stomach acid
skip
skip
The only taxon that actually exists as a natural unit is..
species
What category of organism is the least likely to be revised?
species
What thing demonstrates unity among all living things?
structure and function
what is a molecule?
structure resulting from covalent bonds
who was Karl von Frisch?
studied honeybee communication and bee waggle dance
what is a compound?
substance consisting of two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio
what is an element?
substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical reactions
what is the induced fit model?
substrate enters an enzyme's active site and the enzyme alters its shape slightly so the substrate can fit
What is ATP produced by in glycolysys?
substrate-level phosphorylation
what is cooperativity?
substrates can stimulate an enzyme with quaternary structure to be effective
what happens in elongation of translation?
tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosome and a polypeptide chain is formed
what is enzyme efficiency affected by?
temperature and ph too hot-enzymes denature too cold-enzymes won't work
how does the ratio of cell volume to surface area affect cell division?
the area of the cell membrane increases as the square of the radius, while the volume of the cell increases as the cube of the radius. As a cell grows larger, the volume inside of it increases at a faster rate than the cell membrane
Which of the following defines a genome?
the complete set of an organism's genes
The leading and the lagging strand differ in that
the leading strand is synthesized in the same direction as the movement of the replication fork, and the lagging strand is synthesized in the opposite direction.
In a left hand person, what hand would have more strength?
the left one because he tends to use it more.
what is interphase?
the longest stage of the cell cycle G1-period of intense growth and biochemical activity S-synthesis/replication of DNA G2-cell continues to grow and prepare for the next phase cells spend 90% of life in interphase
cell differentiation
the process by which a cell becomes specialized for a specific structure or function.
signal transduction pathway
the process by which a signal on a cell's surface is converted to a specific cellular response in a series of steps has three steps: 1. reception 2. transduction 3. response
exocytosis
the process by which a substance is released from the cell through a vesicle that transports the substance to the cell surface and then fuses with the membrane to let the substance out
what happens in termination of translation?
the ribosome reaches one of the stop codons and a release factor breaks the bond between the tRNA and the last amino acid of the polypeptide chain
what is ethology?
the scientific study of behavior and its relationship to its evolutionary origins
what is osmosis?
the term used for the diffusion of water across a membrane
what are the types of cell junctions?
tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions, and plasmodesmata
what is cloning?
transfer of a DNA sequence of interest into a single cell of a microorganism (which is grown in culture and amplifies sequence along with its DNA - called a clone)
what is an ionic bond?
transfer of electrons
what are monocytes?
transform into macrophages, extend pseudopods, and engulf huge numbers of microbes over a long period of time
what is operant conditioning?
trial and error learning, a type of associative learning, an animal learns to associate one of its own behaviors with a reward or punishment and then repeats or avoids that behavior
what is allosteric inhibition?
two active sites for substrate and inhibitor inhibitor binding causes conformational change
what is a bond?
two atomic nuclei attract the same electrons
what does mitosis produce?
two genetically identical cells and it preserves the chromosome number--2n
what is a molecule?
two or more atoms held together by a covalent bond
what is classical conditioning?
type of associative learning, learning to associate two stimuli and anticipate events
what is cell fractionation?
uses an ultracentrifuge to spin liquid samples at high speed, separating them in layers based on density to be observed
what is the lysogenic cycle?
viruses replicate without destroying the host cell, they simply replicate with it, thereby creating a number of infected cells as the first infected cell divides
What are the 3 basic needs of plants?
water and minerals, sunlight and gas exchange
what does hydrophobic mean?
water-hating
what does hydrophilic mean?
water-loving
Hamilton's rule
when C < r x B C = cost to the altruistic party r = genetic relatedness B = fitness benefit to recipient of altuism
Figure 14.2: The following questions refer to the pedigree chart for a family, some of whose members exhibit the dominant trait, W. Affected individuals are indicated by a dark square or circle. Question: What is the genotype of individual II-5?
ww
What method is used to elucidate the structures of purified proteins?
x-ray crystallography
What would happen if your brain stem was severed?
your body shuts down and you would die
Suppose you are provided with an actively dividing culture of E. coli bacteria to which radioactive thymine has been added. What would happen if a cell replicates once in the presence of this radioactive base?
DNA in both daughter cells would be radioactive.
complementary DNA (cDNA)
DNA molecule made in vitro using mRNA as a template and the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
cloning vector
DNA molecules that can carry foreign DNA into a host cell and replicate there.
what enzyme catalyzes DNA elongation?
DNA polymerase
territoriality
Defense of a space against encroachment by other individuals.
fibrous connective tissue
Dense tissue, large number of collagen fibers organized into parallel bundles. Includes ligaments and tendons.
light limitation
Depth to which light penetrates limits primary production.
hypertonic
Describes a solution that has a greater concentration of total solute.
hypotonic
Describes a solution that has a lesser concentration of total solute.
isotonic
Describes solutions that have an equal concentration of total solutes.
Rooted
Describing a phylogenetic tree that contains a branch point (often, the one farthest to the left) representing the most recent common ancestor of all taxa in the tree.
ultrametric trees
Diagram in which length of a branch reflects amounts of actual time.
Frederick Griffith
Discovered transformation during an experiment that involved injecting mice with smooth S cells, rough R cells, heat-killed S cells, and heat-killed S cells with living R cells.
archaea
Domain of unicellular prokaryotes that have cell walls lacking peptidoglycan. Like eukaryotes, DNA contains histone proteins.
In most female mammals, one X chromosome is active and one is inactive in each adult cell. What determines which chromosome is the active one? A. The paternal X chromosome is inactivated. B. The active chromosome releases an enzyme that breaks down the other chromosome. C. embryo implantation D. The maternal X chromosome is inactivated. E. Researchers do not know yet.
E. Researchers do not know yet.
Figure 13.4: A certain (hypothetical) organism is diploid, has either blue or orange wings as the consequence of one of its gene on chromosome 12, and has either long or short antennae as the result of a second gene on chromosome 19, as shown in Figure 13.4. Question: A female with a paternal set of one orange and one long gene chromosome and a maternal set comprised of one blue and one short gene chromosome is expected to produce which of the following types of eggs after meiosis?
Each egg has a one-fourth chance of having either blue long, blue short, orange long, or orange short combinations.
pyramids of biomass
Each on this pyramid tier represents standing crop.
what are electron shells?
Electrons move around the nucleus in designated areas called electron shells. An atom can have as many as seven electron shells in total.
kinetic energy
Energy associated with relative motion of objects.
first law of thermodynamics
Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed.
what is telomerase?
Enzyme that uses internal RNA as a template to make telomeres
protein phosphatases
Enzymes that can rapidly remove phosphate groups from proteins.
nondisjunction
Error in meiosis in which homologous chromosomes fail to separate.
macroevolution
Evolutionary change above the species level.
growth factors
Factors that stimulate the cell to divide.
reticular fibers
Fibers made of collagen fibers that are very thin and branched. Forma tightly woven fabric that joins connective tissue to adjacent tissues.
bioenergetics
Flow of energy through an animal. Limits its behavior, growth, reproduction.
memory cells
General term for lymphocytes that are responsible for immunological memory and protective immunity.
homeotic genes
Genes that determine basic features of where a body part is.
sickle-cell disease
Genetic disorder in which red blood cells have abnormal hemoglobin molecules and take on an abnormal shape.
Huntington's disease
Genetic disorder that causes progressive deterioration of brain cells. caused by a dominant allele. symptoms do not appear until about the age of 30.
measure of disorder or randomness in the universe
Gibbs free energy equation: deltaG=deltaH-TdeltaS G-change in free energy H-change in heat T-absolute temperature S-entropy -G=exogonic, exothermic +G=endogonic, endothermic and less entropy
What can the enzyme amylase break down?
Glycogen
Viral genomes can consist of all of the following except...
Helical capsomeres
artificial selection
Humans modifying species for desired traits through selective breeding.
hybrid breakdown
Hybrid is fertile, but when they breed the next generation is sterile.
A woman who has blood type A positive has a daughter who is type O positive and a son who is type B negative. Rh positive is a trait that shows simple dominance over Rh negative and is designated by the alleles R and r, respectively. A third gene for the MN blood group has codominant alleles M and N. Which of the following is a possible genotype for the mother?
IAi
sister chromatids
Identical copies of a chromosome; full sets of these are created during the S subphase of interphase.
noncompetitive inhibitors
Impede enzymatic reactions by binding to another part of the enzyme (other than the active site).
dopamine
Important neurotransmitter in the CNS that acts on the sympathetic nervous system.
centriole
In animal cells, a cytoplasmic organelle that organizes the mitotic spindle fibers during cell reproductions.
conjugation
In bacteria, the direct transfer of DNA between two cells that are temporarily joined.
fibroblasts
In connective tissue, cells that secrete the proteins of the fibers.
countercurrent heat exchanger
In ectotherms, a circulatory adaptation that is an arrangement of blood vessels that warm or cool the blood.
Polytomy
In phylo In a phylogenetic tree, a branch point from which more than two descendant taxa emerge. A polytomy indicates that the evolutionary relationships between the descendant taxa are not yet clear.
Which of the following provides an example of epistasis?
In rabbits and many other mammals, one genotype (cc) prevents any fur color from developing.
vasodialation
Increases in the diameter of superficial blood vessels; cools the body.
mate choice copying
Individuals in a population copy mate choice of others.
mutualism
Interspecific interaction that benefits both species. (+/+)
variation
Is demonstrated by the differences in appearance that offspring show from parents and siblings.
A given organism has 46 chromosomes in its karyotype. We can therefore conclude which of the following?
Its gametes must have 23 chromosomes.
thermal energy
Kinetic energy associated with the random movement of molecules or atoms.
what is pyruvate the raw material for?
Krebs Cycle
operant conditioning
Learning based on the consequences of responding.
social learning
Learning through observing others.
hibernation
Long-term torpor that is an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity.
oxidation
Loss of electrons.
T lymphocytes (T cells)
Lymphocyte that matures in the thymus and acts directly against antigens in cell-mediated immune responses.
biome
Major types of ecological association that occupy broad geographic regions.
what hormones trigger male and female development?
Male- testosterone females- estrogen
carrying capacity (K)
Maximum population size that a particular environment can support.
glycolipids
Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to lipids.
glycoproteins
Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to proteins.
mucous membrane
Membrane that secretes mucus that lubricates the surface of organs and keeps them moist.
liposomes
Membrane-bound droplets that form when lipids are added to water.
synaptic vesicles
Membrane-bounded compartments in which synthesized neurotransmitters are kept.
Which of the following is true of metabolism in its entirety in all organisms?
Metabolism consists of all the energy transformation reactions in an organism.
intermediate disturbance
Moderate levels of disturbance can create conditions that foster greater species diversity.
missense mutations
Most common type of mutation, a base pair mutation in which the new codon makes sense in that it still codes for an amino acid.
stratified epithelium
Multiples tiers of cells.
What is meant by pH?
Negative logarithms of the h+ concentrations.
What characteristics of Neon and phosphorus, when given their atomic number?
Neon has 8 valence electrons making it stable phosphorus has 5 valence electrons making it unstable and reactive.
corpus callosum
Nerves that enable communication between the right and left cerebral hemispheres.
sensory neurons
Neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system.
immigration
New individuals moving into population. Increases population size.
promiscuous
No strong pair bonds or lasting relationships.
cofactor
Non-protein helpers that may be bound tightly to the enzyme as a permanent resident, or may bind loosely and reversibly along with the substrate.
keystone species
Not necessarily abundant, but exert a strong control on community structure due to a pivotal ecological role.
anaerobic
Occurs by fermentation, which generate ATP solely by substrate-level phosphorylation.
endocytosis
Occurs when a cell takes in biological molecules and particulate matter by forming new vesicles from the plasma membrane.
potential energy
Occurs when an object is not moving, but may still posses energy.
chloroplasts
Organelles that capture the energy from sunlight and convert it into chemical energy in a process called photosynthesis.
what are allergies?
Overreaction of the immune system to allergens
Figure 9.2: The citric acid cycle. Question: If pyruvate oxidation is blocked, what will happen to the levels of oxaloacetate and citric acid in the citric acid cycle shown in Figure 9.2?
Oxaloacetate will accumulate and citric acid will decrease.
what four elements make up 94% of living matter?
Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen<3, and Nitrogen
ectoparasites
Parasites that feed on external surface of host.
A kid places plane parts on a table in the exact position where they will be located when complete. This is analogous to which process?
Pattern formation
dispersion
Pattern of spacing among individuals.
macroclimate
Patterns on the global, regional and local level.
trophic efficiency
Percentage of production transferred from one trophic level to the next.
heat-shock proteins
Proteins that help maintain integrity of other proteins that would normally be denatured in extreme heat.
astrocytes
Provide structural and metabolic support for neurons.
when do males and females start production active sperm and eggs?
Puberty!
What type of material Archaea contain?
RNA
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
RNA molecules that construct ribosomal subunits.
ribozymes
RNA molecules that function as enzymes.
nucleic acid probe
Radioactively labeled nucleic acid molecule used to tag a particular DNA sequence.
mutations
Random errors in gene replication that lead to a change in the sequence of nucleotides. The source of all genetic diversity.
random dispersion
Random spacing of individuals of the same species within an area.
endergonic reaction
Reaction that absorbs free energy from its surroundings.
age structure
Relative number of individuals at each age.
quaternary structure
Results from two or more polypeptide subunits.
Viruses with single-stranded RNA that acts as a template are...
Retroviruses
bacilli
Rod-shaped bacteria.
SKIP
SKIP
isomers
Same atoms but different arrangement.
homologous structures
Same structure, different function. Comes from common ancestor.
cell cycle
Series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide.
eutrophication
Sewage and fertilizer runoff adds nutrients to lakes; phytoplankton decreases and cyanobacteria increases.
mesenteries
Sheets of connective tissue in moist or fluid-filled body cavities.
stabilizing selection
Shift that favors the mean.
directional selection
Shift toward a favorable variation.
When pieces of DNA are centrifuged a "satellite" band develops that is separate from the rest of the DNA. This layer is composed of...
Simple sequence DNA
simple epithelium
Single layer of cells.
origins of replication
Site where the replication of a DNA molecule begins, consisting of a specific sequence of nucleotides.
vesicle
Small membrane-bound sac that functions in moving products into, out of, and within a cell.
plasmids
Small rings of DNA found naturally in some bacterial cells in addition to the main bacterial chromosome. Can contain genes for antibiotic resistance, or other "contingency" functions.
epitope
Small, accessible portion of an antigen that can be recognized.
second messengers
Small, non-protein water soluble molecules or ions that send messages throughout the cells by diffusion.
anticodon
Specialized base triplet at one end of a tRNA molecule that recognizes a particular complementary codon on an mRNA molecule.
endocrine signaling
Specialized cells release hormone molecules into vessels of the circulatory system, by which they travel to target cells in other parts of the body.
sympatric speciation
Speciation without a divided population.
In Linnaeu's system of classification, the two smallest categories are genus and ______
Species
interspecific competition
Species compete for a limiting resource. (-/-)
equatorial-polar gradients
Species diversity highest at equator, decreases toward poles.
invasive species
Species generally introduced by humans, that take hold outside of their native range.
biological species concept
Species is a group of populations whose members have the potential to produce fertile offspring.
endangered species
Species that is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range.
tonicity
The ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water; depends partly on concentration of nonpenetrating solutes relative to inside of cell.
cognition
The ability of an animal's nervous system to perceive, store, process, and use information gathered by sensory receptors.
associative learning
The ability of animals to associate one feature with another.
DNA methylation
The addition of methyl groups to bases of DNA after DNA synthesis; may serve as a long-term control of gene expression.
Gene Therapy
The alteration of the genes of a person afflicted with a genetic disease.
alteration of generations
The alteration of two or more different forms in the life cycle of a plant or animal.
critical load
The amount of added nutrient that can be absorbed by plants without damaging ecosystem.
activation energy
The amount of energy needed to push the reactants over an energy barrier.
In facilitated diffusion, (a) molecules may be transported against their concentration gradient (b) specific integral membrane proteins mediate transport (c) the rate of transport is independent of the concentration of the molecule transported (d) ATP is used (e) endocytosis is involved
(b) specific integral membrane proteins mediate transport
The role of oxygen gas in our cells is to: (a) catalyze reactions in glycolysis (b) produce CO2 (c) form ATP (d) accept electrons from the respiratory chain (e) react with glucose to split water
(d) accept electrons from the respiratory chains
In order to survive, cells must: (a) obtain and process energy (b) convert genetic information into proteins (c) replicate (d) both a and b (e) all of the above
(d) both a and b
Which of the following statements about the nuclear envelope is true? (a) it contains pores for the passage of large molecules (b) it is composed of two membranes (c) it contains ribosomes on the inner surface (d) both a and b (e) all of the above
(d) both a and b
Sexual reproduction increases genetic variability through: (a) the exchange of genetic information between male and female gametes during meiosis I (b) the random separation of homologous chromosomes (c) the union of male and female gametes (d) crossing over, independent assortment, and random fertilization (e) random assortment of male and female chromosomes
(d) crossing over, independent assortment, and random fertilization
maximum parsimony
"Occam's Razor." A principle that states that when considering multiple explanations for an observation, one should first investigate the simplest explanation that is consistent with the facts.
Which of the following is produced during the citric acid cycle? (a) FAD (b) pyruvate (c) reduced H carriers (d) lactic acid (e) water
(a) FAD
Mature nerve cells, which are incapable of cell division are most likely in: (a) G1 (b) S phase (c) G2 (d) mitosis (e) meiosis
(a) G1
How does a nucleus in G2 differ from a nucleus in G1? (a) The G2 nucleus has twice the amount of DNA as the G1 nucleus. (b) DNA synthesis occurs only in the G1 phase. (c) Inactive cells are arrested only in G2 phase. (d) During G2, the cell prepares for S phase. (e) All of the above.
(a) The G2 nucleus has twice the amount of DNA as the G1 nucleus.
The members of a homologous pair of chromosomes: (a) are identical in size and appearance (b) contain identical genetic information (c) separate to opposite poses of the cell during mitosis (d) are found only in haploid cells (e) are present only after the S phase
(a) are identical in size and appearance
One explanation for the inhibiting function of ascorbic acid could be its similarity, in terms of size and shape, to catechol, the substrate of the browning reaction. If this explanation is correct, then this is most likely an example of _______ inhibition. (a) competitive (b) indirect (c) noncompetitive (d) allosteric (e) feedback
(a) competitive
The DNA of a eukaryotic cell is (a) double-stranded (b) single-stranded (c) circular (d) complex inverted (e) conservative
(a) double-stranded
Which of the following processes does NOT involve the uptake of materials into the cell? (a) exocytosis (b) pinocytosis (c) endocytosis (d) receptor-mediated endocytosis (e) phagocytosis
(a) exocytosis
Two complementary nucleotides are connected by a(n) _________ bond. (a) hydrogen (b) ionic (c) peptide (d) phosphodiester (e) covalent
(a) hydrogen
In a biological membrane, the phospholipids are arranged with the fatty acid chains facing the interior of the membrane. As a result, the interior of the membrane is: (a) hydrophobic (b) hydrophilic (c) charged (d) polar (e) filled with water
(a) hydrophobic
The tertiary structure of a protein is determined by its: (a) interactions among R groups (b) right-handed coil (c) hydrogen bonding (d) branching (e) glycosidic linkages
(a) interactions among R groups
A prokaryotic cell does NOT have a ____ or a ____. (a) nucleus; membrane-bound organelles (b) nucleus; DNA (c) nucleus; ribosomes (d) nucleus; membranes (e) cell wall; membranes
(a) nucleus; membrane-bound organelles
A typical eukaryotic ell cycle consists of: (a) mitosis and meiosis (b) G1, the S phase, and G2 (c) prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase (d) interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis (e) meiosis and fertilization
(d) interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis
what is modern cell theory?
-all organisms are composed of cells (Schleiden and Scwann, 1838) -cells arise from pre-existing cells (Virchow, 1855) -cells are the basic unit of all organisms
what are some inflammatory responses?
-histamine: triggers enlargement of blood vessels, which increases blood supply to the area and brings phagocytes, triggers common cold symptoms -prostoglandins-promote blood flow to the area -chemokines-attract phagocytes to the area -pyrogens-increase the body temperature to make it more difficult for microbes to function
what factors contribute to tertiary structure?
-hydrogen bonding between R groups -ionic bonding between R groups -Hydrophobic interactions -Van der Waals interactions -disulfide bonds between cysteine amino acids
what are amino acids?
-joined by peptide bonds -consist of a carboxyl group, amine group, variable (R) all attached to a central asymmetric carbon atom
what are the types of microscopes?
-light -electron -transmission electron: for interior of cells -scanning electron: for surface of cells -Phase-contrast-to examine unstained, living cells
If given a pH, know what the hydroxyl concentration would be and what the hydrogen ion concentration would be?
-log10^-7= -(-7)=7
what are nucleic acids?
-polymers that carry all hereditary information -two types: DNA and RNA -consist of a phosphate, a 5-carbon sugar-deoxyribose or ribose, and a nitrogen base (A,C,G and either T or U)
what are the four types of protein conformation?
-primary: linear sequence of amino acids -secondary: hydrogen bonding makes amino acids fold into unique shapes -tertiary: 3D shape of a protein superimposed on its secondary structure, determines specificity -quaternary: 1 or more polypeptide chains
what two factors limit cell size and promote cell division?
-ratio of the volume of a cell to the surface area -capacity of the nucleus to control the entire cell
How is a carbonyl group formed?
...
What do cis-trans isomers look like?
...
What functional groups look like and how they function?
...
Figure 9.2: The citric acid cycle. Question: Starting with one molecule of isocitrate and ending with fumarate, how many ATP molecules can be made through substrate-level phosphorylation (see Figure 9.2)?
1
what is the pH of stomach acid?
2
Cytosine makes up 42% of the nucleotides in a sample of DNA from an organism. Approximately what percentage of the nucleotides in this sample will be thymine?
8%
what is the configuration of cilia and flagella?
9 + 2
pyramid of energy
90% of all energy is lost between trophic levels.
how many elements exist in nature?
92
what percent of human DNA is noncoding?
97 percent (often called "junk" DNA)
Which of the following statements about condensation reactions is FALSE? (a) protein synthesis results from them (b) polysaccharide synthesis results from them (c) they involve covalent bonds (d) they consume water as a reactant (e) different condensation reactions produce different kinds of macromolecules
(d) they consume water as a reactant
A phylogenetic tree: (a) shows evolutionary relationships (b) relies on evidence from fossils, metabolic processes, and molecular analyses of genomes (c) helps us understand the history and relationships of living organisms (d) shows the order in which populations split and evolved into new species (e) all of the above
(e) all of the above
Mendel's dihybrid crosses: (a) resulted in four different phenotypes (b) involved to different traits (c) led to the formation of the law of independent assortment (d) involved the law of segregation (e) all of the above
(e) all of the above
Amino acids can be classified by the: (a) number of monosaccharides they contain (b) number of carbon-carbon double bonds in their fatty acids (c) number of peptide bonds they can form (d) number of disulfide bridges they can form (e) characteristics of their side chains/ R groups
(e) characteristics of their side chains/R groups
Plants are ________ organisms that are _______ of oxygen production. (a) eukaryotic unicellular; capable (b) eukaryotic multicellular; incapable (c) prokaryotic multicellular; capable (d) prokaryotic unicellular; capable (e) eukaryotic multicellular; capable
(e) eukaryotic multicellular; capable
The amino acids of the protein keratin are arranged in an alpha helix. This secondary structure is stabilized by: (a) covalent bonds (b) peptide bonds (c) glycosidic linkages (d) polar bonds (e) hydrogen bonds
(e) hydrogen bonds
If the mRNA codon is 3'-UU AUU GGC CUG-5', what is the complimentary anticodon?
AAA UAA CCG GAC
what is the universal recipient?
AB
what is an orbital?
AN ORBITAL REFERS TO DEFINITE CIRCULAR PATHS OF FIXED ENERGY AROUND A CENTRAL STATIONARY NUCLEUS WHILE AN ORBITAL REFERS TO THE THREE DIMENSIONAL REGION OF SPACE AROUND THE NUCLEUS WHERE THERE IS A PROBABILITY OF FINDING THE ELECTRON.
Which of the following processes occurs in the cytosol? A. glycolysis B. pyruvate oxidation C. oxidative phosphorylation D. citric acid cycle E. All answers are correct.
A. glycolysis
Complete the following sentence: The hydrolysis of one mole of ATP can be used to drive reactions that have a ΔG that is... A. less than 7.3 kcal/mol. B. more than 7.3 kcal/mol. C. less than -7.3 kcal/mol. D. exactly 7.3 kcal/mol. E. exactly -7.3 kcal/mol.
A. less than 7.3 kcal/mol.
Which of the following terms refers to the photosynthetic reactions that produce ATP and NADPH? A. light-dependent reactions B. green reactions C. oxidative reactions D. dark reactions E. Calvin cycle
A. light-dependent reactions
The growth factor bone morphogenetic protein-4 (BMP-4) was first identified as a bone-forming factor by its ability to form bone tissue when injected into muscle. However, it has since been found to also play important roles in neural development and the formation of a large variety of tissues. Mutations in the BMP-4 gene are therefore expected to cause a wide range of abnormalities. Which term best describes this phenomenon? A. pleiotropy B. overdominance C. incomplete dominance D. dominance series E. duplicate interaction
A. pleiotropy
Which is an anabolic process? A. protein synthesis B. glycolysis C. ATP hydrolysis D. protein degradation E. active transport
A. protein synthesis
What does ΔG of a metabolic reaction measure? A. the net changes in enthalpy and entropy during a reaction B. the amount of heat energy gained or lost in a reaction C. the amount of matter transferred in a reaction D. the change in activation energy required in a E. reaction due to enzyme activity the activation energy of a reaction
A. the net changes in enthalpy and entropy during a reaction
Which of the following is a type of chemical cellular work? A. the recognition and repair of mismatched DNA B. the transport of calcium ions C. the unwinding of DNA D. the pumping performed by protein Na+/K+-ATPase E. the change in shape of motor proteins
A. the recognition and repair of mismatched DNA
Which process in oxidative phosphorylation releases energy? A. the transfer of electrons in redox reactions B. the buildup of H+ ions on one side of the mitochondrial membrane C. the rotation of the ATP synthase rotor D. the synthesis of ATP from ADP and a phosphate group E. All answers are correct.
A. the transfer of electrons in redox reactions
The dominant traits in Mendel's pea plants were green pea pods (G) and round peas (R). Yellow pea pods (g) and wrinkled peas (r) were recessive. If you bred plants heterozygous for both characters, GgRr, with each other, how many more plants with green pea pods and round peas would result, on average, than plants with yellow pea pods and round peas? A. three times as many B. one-fourth as many C. nine times as many D. one-half as many E. five times as many
A. three times as many
helper T cells
Activate macrophages, B cells and T cells.
Darwin's finches
Adaptive radiation
acclimatization
Adjusting to a new range of environmental temperatures.
protobionts
Aggregates of abiotically produced molecules surrounded by a membrane.
Which of the following can contribute to the development of cancer?
All of the above 1) Transpositions 2) Mutations by X Rays 3) Random Spontaneous Mutations
regulatory gene
A gene that codes for a protein, such as a repressor, that controls the transcription of another gene or group of genes.
cystic fibrosis
A genetic disorder that is present at birth and affects both the respiratory and digestive systems.
episome
A genetic element that can exist either as a plasmid or as part of the bacterial chromosome.
linkage map
A genetic map based on recombination frequencies.
linkage map
A genetic map based on the frequencies of recombination between markers during crossing over of homologous chromosomes.
Linkage Map
A genetic map based on the frequencies of recombination between markers during the crossover of homologous chromosomes.
physical map
A genetic map in which the actual physical distances between genes or other genetic markers are expressed, usually as the number of base pairs along the DNA.
Physical Map
A genetic map in which the actual physical distances between genes or other genetic markers are expressed, usually as the other base pairs along the DNA.
proteasomes
A giant protein complex that recognizes and destroys proteins tagged for elimination by the small protein ubiquitin.
character
A heritable feature that varies among individuals.
Tay-Sachs disease
A human genetic disease caused by a recessive allele that leads to the accumulation of certain lipids in the brain. Seizures, blindness, and degeneration of motor and mental performance usually become manifest a few months after birth.
Duchenne muscular dystrophy
A human genetic disease caused by a sex-linked recessive allele; characterized by progressive weakening and a loss of muscle tissue.
Southern Blotting
A hybridization technique that enables researchers to determine the presence of certain nucleotide sequences in a sample of DNA.
Southern blotting
A hybridization technique that enables researchers to determine the presence of certain nucleotide sequences in a sample of DNA.
cDNA Library
A limited gene library using complementary DNA. The library includes only the genes that were transcribed in the cells examined.
cDNA library
A limited gene library using complementary DNA. The library includes only the genes that were transcribed in the cells examined.
sensitive period
A limited phase in an animal's development that is the only time when certain behaviors can be learned.
DNA Ligase
A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing chain.
DNA ligase
A linking enzyme essential for DNA replication; catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing chain.
habituation
A loss of responsiveness to stimuli that convey little or no information.
what are aquaporins?
A membrane protein with a hollow center that allows the passage of water. It is doughnut shaped.
aquaporin
A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that facilitates the passage of water through channel proteins.
channel protein
A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that has a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or atomic ions use as a tunnel.
transport protein
A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that has a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or atomic ions use as a tunnel.
carrier protein
A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that holds onto molecules and changes their shapes in a way that shuttles them across the membrane.
viral envelope
A membrane that cloaks the capsid that in turn encloses a viral genome.
contractile vacuoles
A membranous sac that helps move excess water out of the cell.
feedback inhibition
A metabolic pathway is switched off by the inhibitory binding of its end product to an enzyme that acts early in the pathway.
Molecular Clock
A method for estimating the time required for a given amount of evolutionary change, based on the observation that some regions of genomes evolve at constant rates.
DNA Microarray Assays
A method to detect and measure the expression of thousands of genes at one time. Tiny amounts of a large number of single-stranded DNA fragments representing different genes are fixed to a glass slide. These fragments, ideally representing all the genes of an organism, are tested for hybridization with various samples of cDNA molecules.
peroxisome
A microbody containing enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various substrates to oxygen, producing and then degrading hydrogen peroxide.
punctuated equilibrium
A model of evolution in which a new species will change the most as it buds from a parent species, and then will change little for the rest of its existence.
gradualism
A model of evolution in which gradual change over a long period of time leads to biological diversity.
paraphyletic group
A monophyletic group in which some descendants of the common ancestor have been removed.
nonsense mutations
A mutation that changes an amino acid codon to one of three stop codons, resulting in a shorter and usually nonfunctional protein.
Taxon
A named taxonomic unit at any given level of classification.
nuclear lamina
A netlike array of protein filaments lining the inner surface of the nuclear envelope; it helps maintain the shape of the nucleus.
rough ER
A network of interconnected membranous sacs in a eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm; covered with ribosomes that make membrane proteins and secretory proteins.
endomembrane system
A network of membranes inside and around a eukaryotic cell, related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous vesicles.
action potential
A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
prophage
A phage genome that has been inserted into a specific site on the bacterial chromosome.
lysogenic cycle
A phage replication cycle in which the viral genome becomes incorporated into the bacterial host chromosome as a prophage and does not kill the host.
temperate phage
A phage that is capable of reproducing by either the lytic or lysogenic cycle.
cladistics
A phylogenetic classification system that uses shared derived characters and ancestry as the sole criterion for grouping taxa.
F factor
A piece of DNA that confers the ability form a sex pili.
Ti Plasmid
A plasmid of a tumor-inducing bacterium that integrates a segment of its DNA into the host chromosome of a plant; frequently used as a carrier for genetic engineering in plants.
restriction point
A point of no return in the cell cycle; once this point passes, a cell is committed to a full round of the cell cycle.
Which of the following does not occur in prokaryotic gene expression, but does in eukaryotic gene expression?
A poly-A tail is added to the 3' end of an mRNA and a cap is added to the 5' end.
natural selection
A population can change over time if individuals with more fit traits leave more offspring than less fit individuals.
Species
A population or group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring, but do not produce viable, fertile offspring with members of other such groups.
what is a cation?
A positively charged ion
norepinephrine
A precursor of epinephrine that is secreted by the adrenal medulla and also released at synapses.
Maximum Parsimony
A principle that states that when considering multiple expansions for an observation, one should first investigate the simplest explanation that is consistent with the facts.
maximum likelihood
A principle that states that when considering multiple phylogenetic hypotheses, one should take into account the one that reflects the most likely sequence of evolutionary events, given certain rules about how DNA changes over time.
Genetic Drift
A process in which chance events cause unpredictable fluctuations in allele frequencies from one generation to the next. Effects of genetic drift are most pronounced in small populations.
Natural Selection
A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.
TATA box
A promoter DNA sequence crucial in forming the transcription initiation complex.
selective permeability
A property of a plasma membrane that allows some substances to cross more easily than others.
enzymatic activity
A protein built into the membrane with active site exposed.
gated channel
A protein channel in a cell membrane that opens or closes in response to a particular stimulus.
repressor
A protein that suppresses the transcription of a gene.
signal transduction
A series of molecular changes that converts a signal on a target cell's surface to a specific response inside the cell.
Genomic Library
A set of thousands of DNA segments from a genome, each carried by a plasmid, phage, or other cloning vector.
genomic library
A set of thousands of DNA segments from a genome, each carried by a plasmid, phage, or other cloning vector.
anaphylactic shock
A severe reaction that occurs when an allergen is introduced to the bloodstream of an allergic individual. Characterized by bronchoconstriction, labored breathing, widespread vasodilation, circulatory shock, and sometimes sudden death.
ZW system
A sex determination system in fish, butterflies, birds where males are ZZ and Females are ZW. The egg determines the sex of the offspring.
XO system
A sex determination system in some insects in which O stands for the absence of a sex chromosome. Females are XX, Males are XO. Males produce two classes of sperm: X sperm and sperm with no chromosome. The sperm determines the sex of the offspring.
kinesis
A simple change in activity or turning rate in response to a stimuli.
conformer
An animal that allows its internal condition to vary with certain external changes.
Carnivore
An animal that mainly eats other animals.
regulator
An animal that uses internal control mechanisms to moderate internal change in the face of external fluctuation.
classical conditioning
An arbitrary stimulus is associated with an award or punishment.
mitotic spindle
An assemblage of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movements of chromosomes during mitosis.
proton pump
An electrogenic pump that works largely with H+ ions.
reverse transcriptase
An enzyme encoded by some certain viruses (retroviruses) that uses RNA as a template for DNA synthesis.
what is DNA ligase?
An enzyme involved in DNA synthesis that fills in the gaps between the Okazaki fragments.
DNA polymerase
An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of the DNA molecule.
telomerase
An enzyme that catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in eukaryotic germ cells.
primase
An enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make the primer using the parental DNA strand as a template.
helicase
An enzyme that untwists the double helix at the replication forks, separating the two parental strands and making them available as template strands.
Shared Derived Character
An evolutionary novelty that is unique to a particular clade.
Speciation
An evolutionary process in which one species splits into two or more species
transport
An exchange of molecules (and their kinetic energy and momentum) across the boundary between adjacent layers of a fluid or across cell membranes.
cognitive maps
An internal representation of the spatial relationships between objects in an animal's surroundings.
Human Genome Project
An international collaboration effort to map and sequence the DNA of the entire human genome.
Human Genome Project
An international collaborative effort to map and sequence the DNA of the entire human genome.
what is an ion?
An ion is if an atom loses or gains an electron it now has a new charge and is called an ion. The electron is responsible for creating ions because it creates a new charge if it is lost or gained. See how many more or less electrons there are than protons. More electrons are a negative charge, while less electrons is a positive charge.
homozygous
An organism having a pair of identical alleles for a character, either dominant or recessive.
Genetically Modified Organisms (GM)
An organism that has acquired one or more genes by artificial means; also known as a transgenic organism.
genotype
An organism's genetic makeup.
phenotype
An organism's traits.
analogy
Anatomical similarity due to convergent evolution.
endothermic
Animals that are warmed mostly by heat generated by metabolism.
exothermic
Animals that gain heat mostly from external sources.
___ is absorbed by a plant's roots and is moved to the stroma, while ___ enters a plant via the stomata and diffuses to the stroma. A. Glucose; carbon dioxide B. Water; carbon dioxide C. Carbon dioxide; water D. Water; chlorophyll E. Carbon dioxide; oxygen
B. Water; carbon dioxide
metabolic pathway
Begins with a specific molecule, which is then altered in a series of defined steps, resulting in a certain product.
foraging
Behavior associated with recognizing, searching for, capturing, and consuming food.
altruism
Behavior that benefits another without benefiting oneself.
Which statement best summarizes cyclic electron flow occurring in the photochemical reactions of photosynthesis? A. a bypass of photosystem I B. a bypass of photosystem II C. a continual loop through photosystem I and photosystem II D. a continual loop within photosystem II E. None of the answers are correct.
B. a bypass of photosystem II
Albinism is an autosomal recessive trait. An albino mother has an albino daughter by a healthy man. They plan on having four more children. How many of the children are expected to be albino? A. half of the sons and all of the daughters B. half of the sons and daughters C. all of the daughters and none of the sons D. all of the sons and daughters E. all of the sons and none of the daughters
B. half of the sons and daughters
autosomes
Chromosomes that are not directly involved in determining the sex of an individual.
recombinant chromosomes
Chromosomes that carry genes from each parent.
hormones
Circulating chemical signals that are formed in specialized cells, travels in body fluids, and act on specific target cells.
what is the carb empirical formula?
CnH2O
exons
Coding segments of eukaryotic DNA.
A researcher lyses a cell that contains nucleic acid molecules and capsomeres of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). The cell contents are left in a covered test tube overnight. The next day this mixture is sprayed on tobacco plants. Which of the following would be expected to occur?
Plants would develop symptoms of the Tobacco Mosaic Virus
coefficient of relatedness
Probability that if two individuals share common parent or ancestor, a particular gene present in one will be present in other.
RNA splicing
Process by which the introns are removed from RNA transcripts and the remaining exons are joined together.
phagocytosis
Process in which extensions of cytoplasm surround and engulf large particles and take them into the cell.
crossing over
Process in which homologous chromosomes exchange portions of their chromatids during meiosis.
thermoregulation
Process of maintaining an internal temperature within a tolerable range.
inositol triphosphate
Produced by cleavage of a certain kind of phospholipid in the plasma membrane.
spores
Produced by meiosis. Grow into haploid organisms by mitosis.
what are Okazaki fragments?
DNA is copied in these shorts segments on the lagging strand of DNA and are later joined by DNA ligase
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLPs)
Differences in DNA sequence on homologous chromosomes that can result in different patterns of restriction fragment lengths; useful as genetic markers for making linkage maps.
nonsister chromatids
Different chromatids (maternal and paternal) of the same chromosome.
splicosome
Different particles that recognize splice sites are compiled in a large assembly. A complex of RNA and protein subunits. Removes introns from a transcribed pre-RNA segments.
Muscles cells, nerves cells, and other cells are differentiated because of...
Differential gene expression
resource partitioning
Differentiation of niches that enables similar species to coexist.
the life cycle of a plant shifts between a _____ phase and a _____ phase
Diploid and Haploid
sporophyte
Diploid, or spore-producing, phase of an organism. Makes haploid spores by meiosis.
Erwin Chargaff
Discovered that DNA composition varies, but the amount of adenine is always the same as thymine and the amount of cytosine is always the same as guanine.
domains
Discrete structural and functional regions of proteins.
autoimmune diseases
Diseases caused when the immune system loses tolerance for self and turns against certain molecules in the body.
solvent
Dissolving agent of a solution.
cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells.
What are the characteristics of organisms in the Domain Eukarya and Domain Fungi
Eukarya: genetic material in membranes Fungi: decomposers that absorb nutrients from organic compounds
game theory
Evaluates alternate strategies when outcome depends not only on each individual's strategy but also that of others.
evapotranspiration
Evaporation of water from soil plus transpiration from plants. Correlates with species richness.
second law of thermodynamics
Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe.
trophic structure
Feeding relationships between organisms in a community.
zygote
Fertilized egg. Carries one set of chromosomes from each parent.
collagenous fibers
Fibers made of collagen.
elastic fibers
Fibers made of elastin.
relative fitness
Fitness of a particular genotype.
wobble
Flexibility in the base-pairing rules in which the nucleotide at the 5' end of a tRNA anticodon can form hydrogen bonds with more than one kind of base in the third position of a codon.
You have a friend who lost 7 kg (about 15 pounds) of fat on a regimen of strict diet and exercise. How did the fat leave her body?
It was released as CO2 and H2O.
How will an atom with an atomic number of 12 behave?
It will form covalent bonds in order to have a full outer shell.
ecological footprint
Land and water area appropriated by each nation as a resource to consume or to absorb the waste it generates.
what are natural killer cells?
Large granular lymphocytes, target cells that lack "self" cell-surface receptors. Induce apoptosis in cancer cells and virus infected cells. Secrete potent chemicals that enhance the inflammatory response.
cerebrum
Largest part of the brain; responsible for voluntary muscular activity, vision, speech, taste, hearing, thought, and memory.
thymus
Gland in the thoracic cavity above the heart where T lymphocytes mature.
edocrine glands
Glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream.
Which statement best supports the hypothesis that glycolysis is an ancient metabolic pathway that originated before the last universal common ancestor of life on Earth?
Glycolysis is widespread and is found in the domains Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
What are the proteins and carbs called that make up viral envelopes?
Glycoproteins
Which of the following are primarily responsible for cytokinesis in plant cells but not in animal cells?
Golgi-derived vesicles.
ecological succession
Gradual recolonization of a disturbed area; species replaced by other species which are replaced by other species.
survivorship curves
Graph of the proportion of a cohort still alive at each age.
limiting nutrient
Greater limiting factor than light in oceans and lakes.
population
Group of individuals of the same species living in the same area.
Given electron dot diagrams, know which will form covalent bonds and how many they can form?
Groups 14 & 16
tissues
Groups of cells with a common structure and function.
Sister Taxa
Groups of organisms that share an immediate common ancestor and hence are each other's closest relatives.
gene families
Groups of related genes in an organism's genome.
what are T lymphocytes?
HELPER T CELLS: T lymphocytes that orchestrates cellular immunity by direct contact with other immune cells and by releasing chemical called lymphokines: also helps mediate the humoral response by interacting with B cells. SUPPRESSOR T CELLS: regulate T lymphocytes that suppress the immune system. CYTOTOXIC (killer) T CELLS: effector T cell that directly kills foreign cells.
what is chemiosmosis?
Hydrogen atoms diffuse down their concentration gradient out of the thylakoid into the stroma through ion channels in the membrane.
what is a hydrogen bond?
Hydrogen bonds are the weakest bonds. They are more like attractions then true bonds, and form a "bridge" between to two. Hydrogen biding is common between dipoles such as water molecules, because the slightly negative oxygen amounts of one molecule attract the slightly positive hydrogen atoms of other molecules. They are too weak to bind atoms together to form molecules, they are important intermolecular bonds. ex: Hydrogen will bond with virtually anything, so because of this, it does not have enough time to invest in each individual relationship. these bonds are weak, but unfortunately, essential to life
What is the net gain or loss of ATP at the end of glycolysis? A. gain of 26-28 B. gain of 30-32 C. loss of 2 D. gain of 4 E. gain of 2
E. gain of 2
A person inherits two copies of the ___ that defines earlobe shape, one from each parent. From her father, she inherits the ___ for free earlobes. From her mother, she inherits the ___ for attached lobes. A. molecule, nucleotide, nucleotide B. genotype, phenotype, phenotype C. trait, character, character D. protein, amino acid, amino acid E. gene, allele, allele
E. gene, allele, allele
What is the ultimate electron acceptor in the electron transport chain? A. FAD B. ADP C. NAD+ D. hydrogen E. oxygen
E. oxygen
Which definition best defines metabolism? the chemical reactions that break down glucose for energy A. the use of ATP as an energy carrier B. the energy level that must be overcome for a C. chemical reaction to move forward D. the burning of fat molecules for energy E. the sum of all the chemical reactions occurring in an organism
E. the sum of all the chemical reactions occurring in an organism
Which of the following cannot be used as a final electron acceptor in anaerobic respiration? A. sulfate B. iron (III) C. nitrate D. carbon dioxide E. water
E. water
A woman who has blood type A positive has a daughter who is type O positive and a son who is type B negative. Rh positive is a trait that shows simple dominance over Rh negative and is designated by the alleles R and r, respectively. A third gene for the MN blood group has codominant alleles M and N. If both children are of blood type M, which of the following is possible?
Each parent is either M or MN.
What needs to happen to bond two amino acids together?
Enzyme causes them to join by catalyzing dehydration reaction
RNA polymerase
Enzyme that links together the growing chain of ribonucleotides during transcription.
asters
Microtubules and fibers that radiate out from the centrioles.
bone
Mineralized connective tissue.
M phase
Mitosis and cytokinesis.
poly-A tail
Modified end of the 3' end of an mRNA molecule consisting of the addition of some 50 to 250 adenine nucleotides.
prostaglandins
Modified fatty acids that are produced by a wide range of cells.
polar
Molecule with partial charges. Mixes with water.
amphipathic
Molecules are said to be this when it has regions that are both hydrophilic and hydrophobic.
contrast the number of seed leaves in a monocot and diocot
Monocot-1 Diocot- 2
beta glucose
Monomer for cellulose and chitin.
alpha glucose
Monomer for starch and glycogen.
endorphins
Natural analgesics that decrease pain perception.
sexual selection
Natural selection for mating success.
Directional Selection
Natural selection in which individuals at one end of the phenotypic range survive or reproduce more successfully than do other individuals.
Disruptive Selection
Natural selection in which individuals on both extremes of a phenotypic range survive or reproduce more successfully than do individuals with intermediate phenotypes.
Stabilizing Selection
Natural selection in which intermediate phenotypes survive or reproduce more successfully than do extreme phenotypes.
How is artificial selection differ from natural selection?
Natural selection isn't controlled by any organism its contolled by nature while artificial selection can be controlled by an organism.
cytoskeleton
Network of protein filaments within some cells that helps the cell maintain its shape and is involved in many forms of cell movement.
motor neurons
Neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.
neurosecretory cells
Neurons that secrete neurohormone rather than neurotransmitter.
epinephrine
Neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress. Also known as adrenaline.
allele frequency
Proportion of an allele in a gene pool.
allometric growth
Proportioning that gives a body a specific form.
Phylocode
Proposed system of classification of organisms based on evolutionary relationships: Only groups that include a common ancestor and all of its descendants are named.
ozone layer
Protective layer in atmosphere that shields earth from UV radiation.
interferon
Protein produced by cells in response to being infected by a virus; helps other cells resist the virus.
antibodies
Protein that is produced by lymphocytes and that attaches to a specific antigen.
introns
Noncoding segments of nucleic acid that lie between coding sequences.
abiotic factors
Nonliving components of environment.
detritus
Nonliving organic maters such as remains of dead organisms, feces, fallen leaves, dead wood.
crossing over
Nonsister chromatids exchanging DNA segments.
pyramids of numbers
Number of organisms at each trophic level.
what is elongation?
RNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the 3' end of a growing chain
what is initiation?
RNA polymerase recognizes and binds to DNA at the promoter region
what is termination?
RNA polymerase transcribes the termination sequence and mRNA is cut free from the DNA template
siRNAs (small interfering RNAs)
RNAs of similar size and functions as miRNAs that inhibit gene expression.
exergonic reaction
Reaction that proceeds with a net release of free energy.
hydrolysis
Reaction where water split into two hydrogens and one oxygen; this breaks a polymer.
reading frame
Reading mRNA nucleotides in the correct groupings.
coevolution
Reciprocal evolutionary adaptations of two interacting species.
How might we solve the problem of global warming?
Recycle, reduce carbon emissions
Describe two ways in which red muscle fibers and white muscle fibers differ from each other
Red muscles are slow twitch and used for long distance White muscles are fast twitch and used for short/quick distances
competitive inhibitors
Reduce the productivity of enzymes by blocking substrates from entering active sites.
vasoconstriction
Reduces blood flow and heat transfer by decreasing the diameter of superficial blood vessels.
human disturbance
Reduces species diversity in all communities.
This protein is produced by a regulator...
Repressor
antibiotic resistance
Resistance evolving rapidly in many species of prokaryotes due to overuse of antibiotics, especially in agriculture.
An R Plasmid has which of the following abilities?
Resistance to antibiotics.
tertiary structure
Results from interactions between side chains.
What is the purpose of Somatic and Autonomic nervous system
S- regulates things under control A- regulates all things subconsciously
bionomial nomenclature
Scientific name.
genetics
Scientific study of heredity and variation.
turnover
Seasonal changes in warm and cool water layers in lakes.
specific epithet
Second part of scientific name.
immunoglobulins
Secreted antibodies.
Genes that map out subdivision
Segmentation genes
Describe how information flows in the brain.
Sensory to brain
serial endosymbiosis
Sequence of endosymbiotic events that led to an ancestral eukaryote.
paracrine signaling
Signal released from a cell has an effect on neighboring cells.
spirilla
Spiral bacteria.
Golgi apparatus
Stack of membranes in the cell that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum.
turnover time
Standing crop biomass compared to production.
allopolyploid
Sterile hybrid is changed to a fertile polyploid due to mutation ; fertile with each other, but not parent species.
reduced hybrid fertility
Sterile hybrids due to uneven chromosome number.
cholesterol
Steroid common in cell membranes, also in many hormones.
What testosterone and estradiol have in common?
Steroids, organic molecules with common carbon skeleton in form of 4 fused rings.
starch
Storage polysaccharide of plants.
polyribosomes
Strings of ribosomes that work together to translate a RNA message.
competitive exclusion
Strong competition can lead to local elimination of one of the species.
cell wall
Strong layer around the cell membrane in plants, algae, and some bacteria.
neuron
Structural and functional unit of nervous system.
fluid mosaic model
Structural model of the plasma membrane where molecules are free to move sideways within a lipid bilayer.
what is the mitotic spindle?
Structure consisting mainly of microtubules that provides the framework for chromosome movement during cell division.
what is a kinetochore?
Structure of proteins of each sister chromatid located at the centromere that links to the microtubules of centrosomes
Homologous Structures
Structures in different species that are similar because of common ancestry.
organelles
Structures specialized to perform distinct processes within a cell.
enantiomers
Structures that are like a mirror-image.
Analogous Structures
Structures, such as bat's wings and a fly's wings, that have the same function, but similarly is superficial and reflects an adaptation to similar environments, not a common ancestry.
population genetics
Study of allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of evolutionary processes.
reproductive rates
Study of females to determine reproductive output and how it varies with age of female.
ecology
Study of interactions between organisms and the environment.
physiology
Study of the functions an organism performs.
anatomy
Study of the structure of an organism.
demography
Study of vital statistics of a population and how they change over time.
What is a buffer and how do they work?
Substances that minimize pH changes accept or donate H+
primary succession
Succession that begins in a virtually lifeless area.
secondary succession
Succession when an existing community has been cleared, but soil left intact.
-in
Suffix of a protein.
-ose
Suffix of a sugar.
ecological niche
Sum total of a species' use of the biotic and abiotic resources.
niche
Sum total of a species' use of the biotic and abiotic resources; an organism's "role".
List the 5 major functions of the skeletal system
Support produce red blood cells store minerals like calcium to move protect vital organs
transcription
Synthesis of an RNA molecule from a DNA template.
smooth ER
Synthesis of lipids, phospholipids and steroid sex hormones-help detoxify drugs and poisons (liver cells).
cytotoxic T cells or "killer T cells"
T cells that directly attack infecting organisms; these cells attack antigen labeled foreign or host tissue.
Vascular plants are also known as _____ because of the specialized water-conducting cells they contain
Tarcheophytes
biomanipulation
Technique for restoring eutrophic lakes that reduces populations of algae by manipulating higher-level consumers.
character displacement
Tendency of characteristics to be more divergent in sympatric populations than allopatric populations.
Green World Hypothesis
Terrestrial herbivores consume relatively little plant biomass because they are held in check by predators, parasites and disease.
cerebellum
The "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance.
circadian rhythms
The 24-hour biological cycles found in humans and many other species.
5' cap
The 5' end of a pre-mRNA molecule modified by the addition of a cap of guanine nucleotide.
What is meant by the description "antiparallel" regarding the strands that make up DNA?
The 5' to 3' direction of one strand runs counter to the 5' to 3' direction of the other strand.
template strand
The DNA strand that provides the template for ordering the sequence of nucleotides in an mRNA transcript.
what happens in anaphase?
The centromeres split. The two chromatids separate. The two seperate chromatids move along the spindle fibers to the opposite ends of the cell. The cell becomes stretched out as the opposite ends pull apart.
synapse
The junction between two neurons or between a neuron and a muscle.
Animalia
The kingdom that consists of multicellular eukaryotes that ingest their food.
species-area curve
The larger the geographic area, the greater the number of species.
forebrain
The largest and most complicated region of the brain, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum.
biotechnology
The manipulation of living organisms or their components to produce useful products.
independent assortment
The random distribution of the pairs of genes on different chromosomes to the gametes.
genomic imprinting
Variation in phenotype depending on whether an allele is inherited from the male or female parent.
optimal foraging theory
Views foraging behavior as a compromise between benefits of nutrition and costs of obtaining food.
provirus
Viral DNA that inserts into a host genome.
cohesion
Water molecules sticking to each other.
gene flow
When a population gains or loses alleles., movement of alleles into or out of a population due to the migration of individuals to or from the population.
bottleneck effect
When a population has been dramatically reduced, and the gene pool is no longer reflective of the original population's.
allopatric speciation
When a population is divided; leads to speciation.
allosteric regulation
When a protein's function at one site is affected by the binding of a regulatory molecule to a separate site.
founder effect
When a small number of individuals colonize a new area; the new gene pool is not reflective of original population.
diffusion
When a substance moves from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Due to entropy.
enzyme-substrate complex
When an enzyme binds to its substrate, it forms:
substrate-level phosphorylation
When an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate molecule.
density-dependent regulation
When birth or death rates do change with population density.
density-independent regulation
When birth or death rates do not change with population density.
nonshivering thermogenesis (NST)
When hormones cause mitochondria to produce heat instead of ATP in some mammals.
logistic growth
When limiting factors restrict size of population to the carrying capacity of the environment. Forms an S-shaped curve.
graft versus host reaction
When lymphocytes in donated bone marrow react against the recipient.
cellular respiration
When oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with the organic fuel.
lymphocytes
White blood cells.
white matter
Whitish nervous tissue of the CNS consisting of neurons and their myelin sheaths.
Lilies have flowers in multiples of 3 and vascular bundles scattered throughout their stems. Corn plants have fibrous roots and leaves with parallel veins. Roses have taproots and 2 cotyledons. Would you categorize lilies with roses or corn plants? Please explain your answer.
With corn, because multiples of 3 are in monocot and corn is a monocot because it has fibrous roots
biological augmentation
Uses organisms to add essential materials to degraded ecosystems.
what are desomosomes?
Theyre adhering junctions used in tissues subject to stretching and they are linked to the cytoskeleton and intercalated discs
crenation
This happens when a cell shrinks and shrivels; can result in cell death if severe.
plasmolysis
This happens when a cell shrinks inside its cell wall while the cell wall remains intact.
cytolysis
This happens when a cell swells until pressure bursts it, resulting in cell death.
flaccid
This happens when water moves, but the amount within the cell is constant; no pressure builds.
what is a point mutation?
This is when one base pair is paired incorrectly.
solute potential
This measurement has a maximum value of 0; it decreases as the concentration of a solute increases.
pressure potential
This measurement has a minimum value of 0 (when the solution is open to the environment); it increases as pressure increases.
what is a nonpolar molecule?
balanced, symmetrical o=c=o, oil, fat weak attractions
what causes sickle-cell anemia?
base-pair substitution (point mutation)
what do topoisomerases do?
creat a nick in the helix to relieave supercoils created during replication, make cuts lessening the tension on the tightly wound helix
what is inert?
chemically unreactive
what are reactants?
chemicals in a battery that react to produce free electron, cause of chemical reaction-bonds break between atoms, on the left side of the arrow
where does 90% of ATP formation take place?
chemiosmosis
what happens in prophase?
chromatin continues to condense into chromosomes, centrioles separate, spindle fibers form, nuclear envelope breaks down, nucleolus disappears
what happens in telophase?
chromosomes arrive at poles of sprindle apparatus, then they decondense, then the Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reform
what is the structure of the bacterial chromosome?
circular, double-stranded DNA molecule condensed into a structure called the nucleoid, which has no nuclear membrane
what are ABO antibodies?
circulate in the plasma of the blood and bind with the ABO antigens in the event of an improper transfusion
what are gap junctions?
communicating junctions, provide cytoplasmic channels b/w adjacent cells
what are proteins?
complex macromolecules that carry out many functions in the body 1 gram of protein=4 calories consist of S, P, C, O, H, and N polymers consisting of amino groups
what is the cytoskeleton?
complex network of protein filaments that extend through the cytoplasm and give the cell its shape, enable it to move, and anchors organelles to plasma membrane includes microtubules and microfilaments
what are functional groups?
components of organic molecules most often involved in chemical reactions attached to the carbon skeleton, replacing one or more H+ in the hydrocarbons
what is competitive inhibition?
compounds resemble the normal substrate and compete with the substrate to bind; decreases enzyme efficiency
what is enzyme structure?
a globular protein that exhibits tertiary structure substrate-specific name begins with the substrate and ends in -ase catalyze reactions in both directions remain unchanged and are reused
what is a fatty acid?
a hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group at one end -two groups: saturated and unsaturated
what does facilitated diffusion require?
a hydrophilic protein channel that will passively transport specific substances across the membrane
Calico cats are female because
a male inherits only one of the two X-linked genes controlling hair color.
what is feedback inhibition?
a metabolic pathway is switched off by its end product
what is the lytic cycle?
a method of bacteriaphage replication, the phage enters the host cell, takes control of the cell, replicates itself, and causes the cell to burst, releasing the infectious phage viruses
what is a genetic disorder?
a mutation in the somatic cells of an organism
what are eukaryotes?
a nucleus and are more complex cells
what is a virus?
a parasite that can live only inside another cell
what is the plasma membrane?
a phospholipd bilayer only nonpolar molecules can dissolve in it large molecules need to travel through by protein channels
The most commonly occurring mutation in people with cystic fibrosis in a deletion of a single codon. This results in
a polypeptide missing an amino acid
contact inhibition
a process that stops additional cell growth when cells become crowded
what is a TATA box?
a promoter crucial in forming the initiation complex in eukaryotes
what is a DNA probe?
a radioactively labeled single strand of nucleic acid molecule used to tag a specific sequence in a DNA sample
what is a solvent?
a substance that does the dissolving
What is substance X?
a substrate
what is glycolysis?
a ten-step process that breaks down 1 molecule of glucose (a six-carbon molecule) into two three-carbon molecules of pyruvate and pyruvic acid and releases 4 ATP. It requires a 2 ATP activation, so the net gain is 2 ATP
what is territoriality?
a territory is an area that an organism defends and from which other members of the community are excluded
what are purines?
adenine and guanine, which are held together by a double hydrogen bond
what are the nitrogen bases?
adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine
what does a molecule of ATP consist of?
adenosine, and three phosphates
what are the two types of cellular respiration?
aerobic (oxygen) and anerobic (no oxygen)
what is agnostic behavior?
aggressive behavior that involves a variety of threats or actual combat to settle disputes among individuals
What does each hemisphere of your brain control?
controls opposite sides of the body
The independent development of similarities between unrelated groups resulting from adaptation to similar environments
convergent evolution
With respect to the enzyme that converts X to Y, substance A functions as
an allosteric inhibitor.
what is clonal selection?
antigenic molecules select or bind to specific B or T lymphocytes, making it metabolically active and causing it to clone itself and differentiate into plasma and memory cells
what is social behavior?
any kind of interaction among two or more animals, usually of the same species
what is matter?
anything that takes up space and has mass
what is a radioactive isotope?
isotope in which the nucleus decays (breaks down) over time, giving off radiation in the form of matter and energy
how does a virus gain entrance to a cell?
it binds to specific receptors on the cells surface, that's why viruses are cell specifc
how does DNA replicate the two original strands?
it builds both in the 5' to 3' direction. One is formed linear and unbroken towards the replication fork, but the other is away from the replication fork in a series of Okazaki fragments
what is the second line of non-specific defense?
limits the spread of invaders in advance of specific immune responses
The molecule that functions as the reducing agent (electron donor) in a redox or oxidation-reduction reaction
loses electrons and loses potential energy.
how does the capacity of the nucleus affect cell division?
many cells need to have more than one nucleus
What maintains the secondary structure of a protein?
hydrogen bonds
restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs)
differences in the restriction sites on homologous chromosomes that result in different restriction fragment patterns.
What is an example of hydrolysis?
digestion
The population of peppered moths in England changed from white to black in fifty years.
directional selection
what did Jacob and Monod do?
discovered the two types of operon
Be able to identify a molecule that can form a dimer linked b a covalent bond
don't have to do
Know where an amino terminus is in a diagram of a molecule?
don't need to do
Graph: Rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction as a function of varying reactant concentration, with the concentration of enzyme constant. Question: For the enzyme-catalyzed reaction shown in the figure, which of these treatments will cause the greatest increase in the rate of the reaction, if the initial reactant concentration is 1.0 micromolar?
doubling the enzyme concentration
what is the structure of the mitochondrion?
enclosed by a double membrane, outer is smooth but the inner (cristae) is folded the christae had two compartments, the outer and the matrix Krebs occurs in the matrix
what doesn't passive transport require?
energy
how does energy relate to bonding?
energy is released when a bond is formed and energy must be supplied to break a bond
what are the functions of lipids?
energy storage (1 lipid=9 calories) structural (phospholipid bilayer in cell membrane) endochrine (some steroids are hormones)
what is positive feedback?
enhances an already existing process until some endpoint or maximum rate is reached
_____dictates _______ involving cells
form dictates function
The establishment of a genetically unique population through genetic drift
founder effect
What are two other techniques used to study cells?
freeze fracture and tissue culture observation
what is the F plasmid?
gene that codes for sex pili
what are transposons?
genetic sequence that can jump from one chromosomal site to another, from chromosome to plasmid, from plasmid to chromosome
A randomly selected group of organisms from a family would show more genetic variation than a randomly selected group from a..
genus
what are the steps of aerobic respiration?
glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, ETC, oxidative phosphorylation
what are the steps of anaerobic respiration?
glycolysis, and then lactic acid or alcohol fermentation
what are the laws of thermodynamics?
govern energy transformation in living systems 1. Law of Conservation Energy-energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred 2. the universe becomes more disordered ( higher entropy) when energy transformation occurs
what is a tracer?
incorporated into a molecule and used to trace the path of carbon dioxide in the radioactive pathway
what are the two types of bonds?
ionic and covalent
what are the weak bonds?
ionic and hydrogen bonds, they are weak, but essential to life
What scale of strength of molecular interactions?
ionic covalent, dipole, van der waals, hydrogen
What is meant by natural selection?
natural environment selects for propagation of certain traits
What is discovery science?
natural structures and processes accurately through observation and analysis of data
what is golgi apparatus?
near nucleus and consists of flattened membrane sacs stacked next to one another and surrounded by vescicles they package substances produced on the rough ER and secrete them
Miller's classic experiment demonstrated that a discharge of sparks through a mixture of gases could result in the formation of a large variety of organic compounds. Miller used all of the following gases in his experiment EXCEPT..
oxygen
The Tasmanian wolf in Australia is a marsupial but looks very similar to the gray wolf, a placental mammal of North America
parallel evolution
is facilitated diffusion active or passive?
passive
mutagens
physical and chemical agents that interact with DNA to cause mutations
Which of the following describes the ability of a single gene to have multiple phenotypic effects?
pleiotropy
what is a missense mutation?
point mutaions of frameshifts change a codon within a gene into a stop codon and translation is altered
what is PCR?
polymerase chain reaction-method for rapidly amplifying specific fragments of DNA Amplify one molecule of DNA into billions of copies in 1-2 hrs DNA is amplified exponentially by 30-40 cycles of DNA synthesis.
What types of compounds are formed by dehydration reaction?
polymers
what are polysaccharides?
polymers of carbs and are formed as many monos join together in dehydration synthesis
what do single-stranded binding proteins do?
prevent strands from reannealing, act as scaffolding holding the two strands apart
what are radioactive tracers?
radioactive atoms that are incorporated into substances so that movement of the substances can be followed by radiation detectors
what are radioisotopes?
radioactive isotopes ex: radioactive iodine used to diagnose and treat certain diseases
what is half-life?
radioactive isotopes decay at a known rate, it enables us to measure the ages of fossils and estimate the age of earth
who was B. F. Skinner?
rat experiments with operant conditioning
what is catabolism?
reaction that breaks down molecules
what is anabolism?
reaction that builds up molecules
what are lyosomes?
sacs of hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes surrounded by a single membrane principal site of intacellular digestion
what are the ethical considerations of genetic engineering?
safety-people are afraid of drinking genetically engineered milk
What is the difference between a saturated and unsaturated fatty acid and how do they behave?
saturated-no double bonds between carbons, unsaturated- double bonds
control elements
segments of noncoding DNA in eukaryotic genes that help regulate transcription by binding to certain proteins.
Large horns and giant antlers are characteristic of the male.
sexual selection
what are ribosomes?
site of protein synthesis free in cytoplasm or attached to endoplasmic retiulum
micro-RNA (miRNA)
small single stranded RNA molecules that bind to mRNA and can degrade mRNA or block its translation.
what is an atom?
smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element
why is ATP unstable?
the three phosphates are all negative and repel one another
why are isotopes chemically identical?
they have the same number of electrons in the same configuration
what types of atoms are unreactive?
those with completed valence shells
how are territories typically defended?
through agnostic behavior
What is the function of DNA polymerase III?
to add nucleotides to the 3' end of a growing DNA strand
what is a repressible operon?
transcribed continually until deactivated by their repressor which has to bind to a co-repressor before it can bind to the operator, also called trytophan operon
what are ionic compounds?
transfer electrons, form a crystal lattice, high melting points, usually brittle, high solubility, conduct electricity when dissolved, salts
The mathematical expression for the change in free energy of a system is ∆G = ∆H - T∆S. Which of the following is correct?
∆G is the change in free energy.
Class
In Linnaean classification, the taxonomic category above the level of order.
Random Mutation
Mutations that have no change, a positive change, or a negative change
myelin sheath
A layer of electrical insulation that surrounds the axon.
purines
Bases with a double-ring structure.
Bacteria typically have _____, whereas eukaryotes have _____. (a) one chromosome that is usually circular; many chromosomes that are linear (b) several chromosomes that are circular; many chromosomes that are linear (c) one chromosome that is linear; many chromosomes that are circular (d) two chromosomes that are usually circular; eight chromosomes that are linear (e) none of the above
(a) one chromosome that is usually circular; many chromosomes that are linear
Genetic recombination occurs during: (a) prophase of meiosis I (b) the interphase preceding meiosis II (c) the mitotic telophase (d) fertilization (e) the formation of somatic cells
(a) prohpase of meiosis I
All cellular membranes: (a) regulate which materials can cross the membrane (b) support the cell and determine its shape (c) produce energy for the cell (d) produce proteins for the cell (e) move the cell
(a) regulate which materials can cross the membrane
The component of aerobic respiration that produces the most ATP per mole of glucose is: (a) the electron transport chain (b) the citric acid cycle (c) glycolysis (d) lactic acid fermentation (e) alcoholic fermentation
(a) the electron transport chain
Osmosis is: (a) the movement of water across membranes (b) the active transport of water across membranes (c) undirectional diffusion of water across membranes (d) unaffected by solute concentrations inside cells (e) a process that requires energy
(a) the movement of water across membranes
Very few chromosome abnormalities (trisomies and monosomies) are observed in the human population because: (a) they are usually lethal and often cause spontaneous abortion of the embryo (b) they are lethal in early childhood (c) meiosis distributed chromosomes to daughter cells with great precision (d) individuals with these abnormalities are hard to distinguish from the general population (e) the human meiotic spindle is self-correcting
(a) they are usually lethal and often cause spontaneous abortion of the embryo
Chromatin is a series of entangled threads composed of: (a) microtubules (b) DNA and protein (c) fibrous proteins (d) cytoskeleton (e) membranes
(b) DNA and protein
Cells that do NOT divide are usually arrested in: (a) S (b) G1 (c) G2 (d) M (e) prophase
(b) G1
A pea plant with red flowers is test crossed, and one-half of the resulting progeny have red flowers, while the other half has white flowers. Therefore the genotype of the test-crossed parent was: (a) RR (b) Rr (c) rr (d) either RR or Rr (e) this cannot be answered without more information
(b) Rr
The "backbone" of a nucleic acid molecule is made of: (a) nitrogen bases (b) alternating sugars and phosphate groups (c) purines (d) pyrimidines (e) nucleosides
(b) alternating sugars and phosphate groups
During meiosis, the sister chromatids separate during: (a) anaphase I (b) anaphase II (c) the S phase (d) synapsis (e) telophase II
(b) anaphase II
Cells in the intestinal epithelium divide continuously so that cells lost form the surface of the intestinal lining are replaced. A microscopic examination of the live cells would show that most of them: (a) are in meiosis (b) are in mitosis (c) are in interphase (d) have condensed chromatin (e) both b and d
(b) are in mitosis OR (c) are in interphase
Leucine and valine have R groups (side chains) consisting entirely of C and H (hydrocarbon); therefore, the side chains: (a) are hydrophilic (b) are nonpolar (c) have sulfur atoms in their side chains (d) are electrically charged (e) form only left-hand isomers
(b) are nonpolar
A haploid cell is a cell: (a) in which the genes are arranged haphazardly (b) containing only one copy of each chromosome (c) that has resulted from the process of mitosis (d) with twice the number of chromosomes of a diploid cell (e) none of the above
(b) containing only on copy of each chromosome
All zygotes are: (a) multicellular (b) diploid (c) animals (d) clones (e) gametes
(b) diploid
In any system, some of the energy is unusable for work. The unusable energy is a measure of the disorder of the system and is referred to as: (a) free energy (b) entropy (c) enthalpy (d) thermodynamics (e) equilibrium
(b) entropy
Suppose studies indicate that ascorbic acid is not similar to catechol in size and shape but that the pH of the ascorbic acid solution alters the protein folding of catecholase. If this is true, then this inhibition is most likely an example of: (a) competitive inhibition (b) enzyme denaturation (c) noncompetitive inhibition (d) allosteric regulation (e) feedback inhibition
(b) enzyme denaturation
The portion of a phospholipid that contains the phosphorous group has one or more electric charges because it acts as a hydrogen donor making this region: (a) hydrophobic (b) hydrophilic (c) nonpolar (d) unsaturated (e) saturated
(b) hydrophilic
Active transport usually moves molecules: (a) in the same direction as diffusion moves them (b) in a direction opposite to the one in which diffusion moves them (c) in a direction that tends to bring about equilibrium (d) toward higher pH (e) from inside to outside the cell
(b) in a direction opposite to the one in which diffusion moves them
Enzymes are biological catalysts that function by: (a) increasing free energy in a system (b) lowering activation energy of a reaction (c) lowering entropy in a system (d) increasing temperature near a reaction (e) altering the equilibrium of the reaction
(b) lowering activation energy of a reaction
The number of chromosomes is reduced to half during: (a) anaphase of mitosis and meiosis (b) meiosis I (c) meiosis II (d) fertilization (e) interphase
(b) meiosis I
A beta pleated sheet organization in a polypeptide chain is an example of _______ structure. (a) primary (b) secondary (c) tertiary (d) quaternary (e) coiled
(b) secondary
DNA carries genetic information in its: (a) helical form (b) sequence of bases (c) tertiary structure (d) sequence of amino acids (e) phosphate groups
(b) sequence of bases
You would NOT expect to find RNA in which of the following structures? (a) nucleus (b) mitochondrion (c) vacuole (d) ribosome (e) prokaryotic cell
(c) vacuole
Which of the following is NOT part of sexual reproduction? (a) the segregation of homologous chromosomes during gamete formation (b) the fusion of sister chromatids during fertilization (c) the fusion of haploid cells to form a diploid zygote (d) the reduction in chromosome number during meiosis (e) the production of genetically distinct gametes during meiosis
(b) the fusion of sister chromatids during fertilization
The shape of a folded protein is determined by: (a) its tertiary structure (b) the sequence of its amino acids (c) whether the peptide bonds have alpha or beta linkages (d) the number of peptide bonds (e) the base-pairing rules
(b) the sequence of its amino acids
Diploid cells of the fruit fly Drosophila have 10 chromosomes. How many chromosomes does as Drosophila gamete have? (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 5 (d) 10 (e) 20
(c) 5
Ribosomes are made up of: (a) DNA and RNA (b) DNA and proteins (c) RNA and proteins (d) proteins (e) DNA
(c) RNA and proteins
How would the surface area-to-volume ratio of eight 1-mm cubes compare to the surface area-to-volume ratio of one 2-mm cube? (a) They would be equal (b)The 2-mm cube would have a greater surface area-to-volume ratio (c) The 1-mm cubes would have a greater surface area-to-volume ratio (d) The 2-mm cube would have a greater surface area; the 1-mm cubes would have a greater volume (e) Cannot determine with the information provided.
(c) The 1-mm cubes would have a greater surface area-to-volume ratio
How does the reduction of pyruvate to lactic acid during fermentation allow glycolysis to continue in the absence of oxygen? (a) Water is formed during this reaction. (b) This reaction is a kinase reaction. (c) This reaction is coupled to the oxidation of NADH to NAD+ (d) This reaction is coupled to the formation of ATP. (e) This reaction is coupled to the reduction of NAD+ to NADH.
(c) This reaction is coupled to the oxidation of NADH to NAD+.
A nucleotide contains a pentose sugar, a phosphate group, and: (a) a lipid (b) an acid (c) a nitrogen-containing base (d) an amino acid (e) a glycerol
(c) a nitrogen-containing base
The R group of the amino acid serine is -CH2-OH. The R group of the amino acid alanin is -CH3. Where would you expect to find these amino acids in a tertiary protein aqueous solution? (a) serine would be in the interior, and alanine would be on the exterior of the protein (b) both serine and alanine would be on the interior of the protein (c) alanine would be in the interior, and serine would be on the exterior of the protein (d) both serine and alanine would be on the exterior of the protein (e) both serine and alanine would be in the interior and the exterior of the protein
(c) alanine would be in the interior and serine would be on the exterior of the protein
Metabolism is (a) the consumption of energy (b) the release of energy (c) all chemical transformations and other work done in a cell or organism (d) the production of heat by chemical reactions (e) the exchange of nutrients and waste products with the environment
(c) all chemical transformations and other work done in a cell or organism
Molecules that are both attracted to water and repel water are called: (a) hydrophilic (b) hydrophobic (c) amphipathic (d) amphoric (e) glycosidic
(c) amphipathic
The function of NAD+ is to: (a) cause the release of energy to adjacent cells when energy is needed in aerobic (b) hasten the release of energy when the cell has been deprived of oxygen (c) carry hydrogen atoms and free energy from compounds being oxidized, and to give hydrogen atoms and free energy to compounds being reduced (d) block the release of energy to adjacent cells (e) none of the above
(c) carry hydrogen atoms and free energy from compounds being oxidized, and to give hydrogen atoms and free energy to compounds being reduces
Which of the following represents a correct ordering of the levels of complexity at which life is studied, from most simple to most complex? (a) community, population, organism, organ, tissue, cell (b) cell, organ, tissue, organism, population, community (c) cell, tissue, organ, organism, population, community (d) cell, tissue, organ, population, organism, community (e) tissue, organ, cell, population, organism, community
(c) cell, tissue, organ, organism, population, community
The genotype of an organism that expresses a dominant trait can be determined by: (a) crossing the organism with a homozygous dominant organism (b) crossing the organism with a heterozygous dominant organism (c) crossing the organism with a homozygous recessive organism (d) observing the phenotype of the progeny from any cross (e) observing the genotype of the progeny from any cross
(c) crossing the organism with a homozygous recessive organism
According to the chemoismotic theory, the energy for the synthesis of ATP as electrons flow down the respiratory chain is provided DIRECTLY by the: (a) hydrolysis of GTP (b) reduction of NAD+ (c) diffusion of protons (d) reduction of FAD (e) hydrolysis of ATP
(c) diffusion of protons
The monomers that make up polymeric carbohydrates like starch are called: (a) nucleotides (b) trisaccharides (c) monosaccharides (d) nucleosides (e) fatty acids
(c) monosaccharides
Which of the following events occurs as part of the electron transport chain? (a) release of CO2 (b) reduction of CO2 (c) oxidation of FADH and NADH (d) reduction of NAD+ (e) both a and b
(c) oxidation of FADH and NADH
What would happen if a suspension of red blood cells in an isotomic NaCl solution was suddenly diluted with pure water by a factor of 10? (a) Nothing would happen (b) the cells would lose water and shrink (c) the cells would swell and lyse (burst) (d) the cells would take up water, but the cell wall would prevent bursting (e) the cells would pump water out of the cell
(c) the cells would swell and lyse
Starch and glycogen, which are both polysaccharides, differ in their functions in that starch is ______, whereas glycogen _________. (a) the main component for plant structural support; is an energy source for animals (b) a structural material found in plants and animals; forms external skeletons in animals (c) the principle energy storage compound of plants; is the main energy storage of animals (d) a temporary compound used to store glucose; is a highly stable compound that stores complex lipids (e) the main energy storage of animals; is a temporary compound used to store glucose
(c) the principle energy storage compound of plants; is the main energy storage of animals
A plantlinke organism on the planet Pandora can have three recessive genetic traits: bluish leaves, due to an allele (a) of gene A; a feathered stem, due to an allele (b) of gene B; and hollow roots due to an allele (c) of gene C. The three genes are linked and recombine as follows: A geneticist did a testcross with an organism that had been found to be heterozygous for the three recessive traits and she was able to identify progeny of the following phenotypic distribution (+ = wild type). Question: In which progeny phenotypes has there been recombination between genes A and B?
1, 2, 5, and 6
what are the five major properties of water?
1. Water has a high specific heat. -resist change in temperature -moderate climate of nearby land 2. Water has a high heat of vaporization. -evaporation cools the body surface (sweating) 3. Water is the universal solvent. -dissolves all polar and ionic substances 4. Water exhibits strong cohesion tension. 5. Ice floats because it is less dense than water.
what is the pH of acid rain?
1.5-5.4
how much do neutrons and protons weigh?
1.7 x 10^-24 grams, 1 dalton
Black fur in mice (B) is dominant to brown fur (b). Short tails (T) are dominant to long tails (t). What fraction of the progeny of crosses BbTt x BBtt will be expected to have black fur and long tails?
1/2
In the cross AaBbCc x AaBbCc, what is the probability of producing the genotype AABBCC?
1/64
what are tandem repeats?
10000 known STR in the human genome, DNA sequences that repeat, less susceptible to degradation , number of repeats vary among individuals
Charles Darwin
1809-1882 English naturalist and scientist whose theory of evolution through natural selection was first published in 'On The Origin of the Species" in 1859.
what is the equation for glycolysis?
2 ATP+1 Glucose= 2 Pyruvate+4 ATP
how many amino acids are there?
20
If the strand to be transcribed is 5'-AAA TAA CCG GAC-3', what mRNA codon forms?
3'-UU AUU GGC CUG-5'
Starting with a fertilized egg (zygote), a series of five cell divisions would produce an early embryo with how many cells?
32
how much ATP total is formed in glycolysis?
38 total, 36 net
What would molecular formula of three glucose molecules be?
3C6, H12, O6
Figure 9.2: The citric acid cycle. Question: For each mole of glucose (C6H12O6) oxidized by cellular respiration, how many moles of CO2 are released in citric acid cycle (see Figure 9.2)?
4
A plantlinke organism on the planet Pandora can have three recessive genetic traits: bluish leaves, due to an allele (a) of gene A; a feathered stem, due to an allele (b) of gene B; and hollow roots due to an allele (c) of gene C. The three genes are linked and recombine as follows: A geneticist did a testcross with an organism that had been found to be heterozygous for the three recessive traits and she was able to identify progeny of the following phenotypic distribution (+ = wild type). Question: Which of the following are the phenotypes of the parents in this cross?
4 and 8
In a population of 1,000 people, 90 have blue eyes. What percent of the population has hybrid brown eyes?
42%
In a population that is in a Hardy- Weinberg equilibrium the frequency of a particular recessive allele a is 0.4. What is the percentage of the population heterozygous for this allele?
48%
If a given DNA strand, what is its complementary strand
5' - AGGTCC - 3' 3' - TCCAGGC - 5'
what are nucleotides?
5-carbon sugar, phosphate, nitrogen base
Figure 14.2: The following questions refer to the pedigree chart for a family, some of whose members exhibit the dominant trait, W. Affected individuals are indicated by a dark square or circle. Question: What is the likelihood that the progeny of IV-3 and IV-4 will have the trait?
50%
How do you calculate the number of molecules in a given amount of a solution?
6.02 X 10 ^23
Radish flowers may be red, purple, or white. A cross between a red-flowered plant and a white-flowered plant yields all-purple offspring. The part of the radish we eat may be oval or long, with long being the dominant characteristic. If true-breeding red long radishes are crossed with true-breeding white oval radishes, the F1 will be purple and long. In the F2 generation of the above cross, which of the following phenotypic ratios would be expected?
6:3:3:2:1:1
what is the chemical equation for photosynthesis?
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2
How many hydrogen atoms can bond covalently to two carbon atoms?
6H & 2C h h h:c: c:h h h
what is the internal cell pH?
7.4 (i.e. close to 7)
what is random fertilization?
8 million x 8 million recombinant possibilities in every reproduction
what is the Rh factor?
A blood antigen, Rh stands for Rhesus monkey, the animial in which it was first identified. Rh antigen is on the surface of RBCs when blood is Rh positive. Cells without the antigen on surface are Rh negative.
enhancer
A DNA segment containing multiple control elements that can recognize certain transcription factors that stimulate the transcription of nearby genes.
replication fork
A Y-shaped region on a replicating DNA molecule where new strands are growing.
lysosome
A cell organelle that contains digestive enzymes.
transformation
A change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell.
deletion
A change to a chromosome in which a fragment of the chromosome is removed.
Shared Ancestral Character
A character, shared by members of a particular clade, that originated in an ancestor that is not a member of that clade.
cytogenetic maps
A chart of a chromosome that locates genes with respect to chromosomal features distinguishable in a microscope.
catalyst
A chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction.
trisomic
A chromosomal condition in which a particular cell has an extra copy of one chromosome, instead of the normal two.
monosomic
A chromosomal condition in which a particular cell has only one copy of a chromosome, instead of the normal two.
what is an operon?
A cluster of genes and its control sequences - used in lactose process
ganglion
A cluster of nerve cell bodies, often of similar function, located in the PNS.
Downs Syndrome
A congenital disorder caused by having an extra Chromosome 21.
what is a double bond?
A covalent bond in which two electron pairs are shared between two atoms.
MPF
A cyclin-Cdk complex that causes the cell to move from interphase into mitosis.
restriction enzyme
A degradative enzyme that recognizes and cuts up DNA (including that of certain phages) that is foreign to a bacterium.
Restriction Enzymes
A degradative enzyme that recognizes and cuts up DNA that is foreign to a bacterium.
barr body
A dense body formed from a deactivated X chromosome.
nucleoid
A dense region of DNA in a prokaryotic cell.
lagging strand
A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates by means of Okazaki fragments, each synthesized in a 5' to 3' direction away from the replication fork.
cell plate
A double membrane across the midline of a dividing plant cell, between which the new cell wall forms during cytokinesis.
active immunity
A form of acquired immunity in which the body produces its own antibodies against disease-causing antigens.
The genetic code is essentially the same for all organisms. From this, one can logically assume which of the following?
A gene from an organism can theoretically be expressed by any other organism.
fate maps
A labor-intensive study to produce useful territorial diargams of embryonic development.
mark-recapture method
A sampling technique used to estimate wildlife populations.
Taxonomy
A scientific discipline concerned with naming and classifying the diverse forms of life.
Systematics
A scientific discipline focused on classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary relationships.
Molecular Systematics
A scientific discipline that uses nucleic acids or other molecules to infer evolutionary relationships between different species.
transposable genetic element
A segment of DNA that can move within the genome of a cell by means of a DNA or RNA intermediate; also called a transposable element.
fixed action patterns (FAP)
A sequence of unlearned behavioral acts that is unchangeable and usually carried to completion.
restriction site
A specific sequence on a DNA strand that is recognized as a cut siteby a restriction enzyme.
polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
A technique for amplifying DNA in vitro by incubating with special primers, DNA polymerase molecules, and nucleotides.
electroporation
A technique to introduce recombinant DNA into cells by applying a brief electrical pulse to a solution containing the cells. The pulse creates temporary holes in the cells' plasma membrane, through which DNA can enter.
receptor-mediated
A type of endocytosis in which the cell acquires bulk quantities of specific substances, even though they may not be very concentrated in the extracellular fluid.
scaffolding proteins
A type of large relay protein to which several other relay proteins are simultaneously attached to increase the efficiency of signal transduction.
inversion
A type of mutation in which the order of the genes in a section of a chromosome is reversed.
positive feedback
A type of regulation that responds to a change in conditions by initiating responses that will amplify the change. Takes organism away from a steady state.
negative feedback
A type of regulation that responds to a change in conditions by initiating responses that will counteract the change. Maintains a steady state.
lytic cycle
A type of viral (phage) replication cycle resulting in the release of new phages by lysis (and death) of the host cell.
operon
A unit of genetic function common in bacteria and phages, consisting of coordinately regulated clusters of genes with related functions.
Yeast Artificial Chromosomes (YACs)
A vector that combines the essentials of a eukaryotic chromosome- an origin fro DNA replication, a centromere, and two telomeres- with foreign DNA.
bacteriophage
A virus that infects bacteria; also called a phage.
bacteriophages
A virus that infects bacteria; also called a phage.
How do the products of cyclic electron flow compare with linear electron flow in the photochemical reactions of photosynthesis? A. Cyclic electron flow yields ATP but not NADPH. B. Cyclic electron flow yields more G3P. C. Linear electron flow yields NADPH but not ATP. D. Linear electron flow yields more glucose. E. None of the answers are correct.
A. Cyclic electron flow yields ATP but not NADPH.
In cyclic electron flow, electrons exiting the transport chain recycle back to photosystem I. Why is this process less efficient than linear electron flow? A. Electrons are unavailable for the carbon-fixation reactions. B. Electrons lose mass as they are recycled over and over. C. Electrons are unavailable for forming ATP. D. Electrons never pass through photosystem II, which produces ATP. E. None of the answers are correct.
A. Electrons are unavailable for the carbon-fixation reactions.
Which molecules transport electrons from the citric acid cycle to the electron transport chain? A. NADH and FADH2 B. ATP and ADP C. GTP and GDP D. oxaloacetate and citric acid E. None of the answers are correct.
A. NADH and FADH2
Why does crossing true-breeding red and white snapdragons result in pink offspring? A. The allele that codes for the red pigment trait has incomplete dominance. B. The alleles that code for the red and white trait are on the same chromosome C. Parents' traits blend in their offspring. D. The allele that codes for the white color trait prevents expression of the gene that codes for the red color trait. E. White flower color is a recessive trait.
A. The allele that codes for the red pigment trait has incomplete dominance.
What happens in overdominance? A. The hybrid has a more extreme phenotype than either parent. B. Both participating alleles show an additive effect on the phenotype. C. One gene has multiple phenotypic effects. D. One gene prevents the other from exerting any effect. E. Each relevant allele contributes independently to the phenotype.
A. The hybrid has a more extreme phenotype than either parent.
You breed a female fruit fly that shows the wild-type phenotype but is heterozygous for two traits with a male expressing mutations in both those traits. After many repetitions of the same cross, half the offspring show the wild-type phenotype, and half show both mutations. What can you conclude about the genes for the two traits? A. They are on the same chromosome and probably close together. B. They are unlinked. C. One of them is Y-linked. D. They are on different chromosomes. E. They are X-linked.
A. They are on the same chromosome and probably close together.
Which statement regarding facultative anaerobes is true? A. They can survive in the presence or absence of oxygen. B. They require oxygen to survive. C. They require the lack of oxygen to survive. D. They cannot metabolize glucose. E. They require carbon dioxide to survive.
A. They can survive in the presence or absence of oxygen.
Complete the following sentence: Gene is to allele as... A. character is to trait. B. genotype is to phenotype. C. dominant is to recessive. D. homozygous is to heterozygous. E. meiosis is to mitosis.
A. character is to trait.
life cycle
All of the events in the growth and development of an organism until the organism reaches sexual maturity.
gene pool
All the genes in a given population at a given time.
biotic factors
All the plant and animal life of a particular region.
Flora
All the plant life in a particular region
For a science fair project, two students decided to repeat the Hersey and Chase experiment, with modifications. They decided to label the nitrogen of the DNA, rather than the phosphate. They reasoned that each nucleotide has only one phosphate and two to five nitrogens. Thus, labeling the nitrogens would provide a stronger signal than labeling the phosphates. Why won't this experiment work?
Amino acids (and thus proteins) also have nitrogen atoms; thus, the radioactivity would not distinguish between DNA and proteins.
macrophages
Amoeboid cells that roam connective tissue and engulf foreign particles and debris of dead cells.
secondary production
Amount of chemical energy in consumers' food that is converted to new biomass.
retrovirus
An RNA virus that reproduces by transcribing its RNA into DNA and then inserting the DNA into a cellular chromosome; an important class of cancer-causing viruses.
hemophilia
An X-linked recessive disorder in which blood fails to clot properly, leading to excessive bleeding if injured.
evolutionary adaptation
An accumulation of inherited characteristics that enhance organisms' ability to survive and reproduce in specific environments.
Cloning Vector
An agent used to transfer DNA in genetic engineering. A plasmid that moves recombinant DNA from a test tube back into a cell is an example of cloning vector, as is a virus that transfers recombinant DNA by infection.
recessive allele
An allele that is masked when a dominant allele is present
dominant allele
An allele whose trait always shows up in the organism when the allele is present.
induced fit
Brings chemical groups of the active site into positions that enhance their ability to catalyze the chemical reaction.
T cell receptor
Antigen receptors on a T cell. Unlike antibodies, T cell receptors are never produced in a secreted form.
antigen
Any foreign molecule that is specifically recognized by lymphocytes and elicits an immune response.
Archaean
Any member of the Archaea, a domain of prokaryotic microorganisms, distinguished from bacteria on molecular phylogenetic grounds and often found in hostile environments, such as volcanic vents and hot springs
ligand
Any molecule that bonds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule.
somatic cell
Any of the cells of a plant or animal except the reproductive cells.
restoration ecology
Applies ecological principles in an effort to return degraded ecosystems to conditions as similar as possible to their natural state.
extremophiles
Archaea that live in extreme environments.
methanogens
Archaea that release methane, a greenhouse gas.
thermophiles
Archaea that thrive in very hot environments, such as volcanic springs.
vestigial structures
Are little or no importance to organism, but remain from an ancestor.
actual range
Area an organism actually occupies.
What is a community?
Array of organisms in particular ecosystems
Looking at a periodic table square, know how many electrons, protons and neutrons the atoms will contain
Atomic number=protons, electrons, neutrons = mass number- atomic number
tendons
Attach muscles to bones.
electronegativity
Attraction of an atom for electrons in a covalent bond.
what are autoimmune diseases?
Autoimmune Disease occurs when T and B cells are activated to produce immune reactions against self proteins; result in host tissue damage; some disease cause by autoantibodies that interact with self antigens.
taxis
Automatic, oriented movement toward or away from some stimuli.
per capita offspring
Average number of offspring produced per individual during a specified period of time.
geographic variation
Difference in variation between population subgroups in different areas.
sexual dimorphism
Differences between the sexes in secondary sexual characteristics.
Figure 9.1 illustrates some of the steps (reactions) of glycolysis in their proper sequence. Each step is lettered. Use these letters to answer the questions. Question: which step in Figure 9.1 shows a split of one molecule into two smaller molecules?
B
oxidizing agent
B oxidizes A by removing A's electrons.
prezygotic barriers
Barriers that impede mating or hinder fertilization.
During glycolysis, how many molecules of NADH are formed per molecule of glucose? A. 1 B. 2 C. 4 D. 8 E. cannot be determined
B. 2
In humans, attached earlobes are recessive to free earlobes. Consider a woman with attached earlobes and her male partner who has free earlobes. If he is heterozygous for the trait of free earlobes, what is the probability that their child will have free earlobes? A. This cannot be predicted based on the information provided. B. 50% C. 75% D. 25% E. 100%
B. 50%
What result showed up in the F1 generation of Mendel's first monohybrid crosses that countered prevailing ideas about inheritance? A. The plants could not breed to produce viable offspring. B. All the plants looked like just one of the parents. C. All the plants looked like both of the parents. D. The parents did not breed true. E. None of the plants looked like either parent.
B. All the plants looked like just one of the parents.
What happens to excess energy in the electron transport chain that is not used to established an electrochemical gradient of protons? A. It is used to regenerate NAD+. B. It is dissipated as heat. C. It is used to synthesize ATP. D. It is used to synthesize glucose. E. It is used to synthesize pyruvate.
B. It is dissipated as heat.
Albinism, the trait of being albino, is recessive. What can you accurately predict about an albino mouse? A. It has been bred for laboratory experiments. B. It is homozygous recessive for albinism. C. It might be heterozygous or homozygous. D. Only one of the parents was albino. E. Neither parent was albino.
B. It is homozygous recessive for albinism
Marfan syndrome is associated with tall height and a high risk of heart and eye problems. How does mutation of one gene cause all these symptoms? A. Each symptom is a result of high blood pressure. B. The gene codes for a connective tissue protein used in many parts of the body. C. The gene codes for an enzyme that catalyzes many different reactions. D. Multiple alleles create a variety of phenotypes through incomplete dominance. E. The mutation up-regulates transcription of several genes.
B. The gene codes for a connective tissue protein used in many parts of the body.
nucleic acid hybridization
Base pairing between a gene and a complementary sequence on another nucleic acid molecule.
Which of the following is the best tool for detecting aneuploidy? A. pedigree analysis B. karyotyping C. genome-wide association studies D. test crossing E. None of these answers are correct.
B. karyotyping
Which type of reactions control the energy release from glucose during the citric acid cycle? A. acid-base reactions B. redox reactions C. random reactions D. All answers are correct. E. None of the answers are correct.
B. redox reactions
What is quenching, in the context of photosynthesis? A. the dissipation of excess energy as heat to the environment B. the funneling of excess energy to the chlorophyll molecules C. accelerated water absorption by the plants D. saturation of the reaction centers due to continual bombardment of energy E. None of the answers are correct.
B. the funneling of excess energy to the chlorophyll molecules
How is the energy from the electron transport chain used most directly? A. to form the bonds of a water molecule B. to pump hydrogen ions across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the mitochondrial intermembrane space C. to join ADP with a phosphate D. to decompose glucose into pyruvate E. to rotate ATP synthase
B. to pump hydrogen ions across the inner mitochondrial membrane into the mitochondrial intermembrane space
Gram-positive bacteria
Bacteria that have simple cell walls with much peptidoglycan.
semelparity
Big-bang reproduction.
major histocompatibility compex (MHC)
Binds to a fragment of an antigen within a cell and presents it on the surface of the membrane.
single-strand binding protein (SSB)
Binds to and stabilizes single-stranded DNA until it can be used as a template.
biota
Biotic factors.
RNA interference
Blocking gene expression by means of an miRNA silencing complex.
phosphodiester bonds
Bonds between phosphate group and pentose sugar in nucleic acids.
peptide bond
Bonds that connect amino acids.
osteoblasts
Bone-forming cells.
what is kin selection?
By helping its relatives, an individual can increase the representation of some of its own alleles in the population (how altruism evolves)
Figure 9.1 illustrates some of the steps (reactions) of glycolysis in their proper sequence. Each step is lettered. Use these letters to answer the questions. Question: Which step in Figure 9.1 is a redox reaction?
C
What is the difference between Carbon 12 and Carbon 14?
Carbon 14 has two more neutrons
Greenhouse Effect
Carbon dioxide and water vapor in atmosphere trap infrared radiation, re-reflecting it back toward earth.
What four elements make up 96% of living matter?
Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Hydrogen
Which of the following statements are true? I. During photorespiration, nitrogen competes with carbon dioxide as a substrate for RuBisCO. II. Photorespiration uses energy. III. In photorespiration, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate is converted to one molecule of 3-phosphogylcerate and one molecule of 2-phosphoglycolate. IV. Photorespiration may not have had a large impact on plants when atmospheric oxygen levels were lower. A. I, II, III, and IV B. I, II, and IV only C. II, III, and IV only D. I, II, and III only E. I, III, and IV only
C. II, III, and IV only
How does the single genetic defect cause the phenotypes seen in cystic fibrosis? A. It codes for formation of a defective structural protein. B. It prevents any protein coding by the affected gene. C. The defective protein coded by the gene cannot transport molecules across the cell membrane. D. It codes for production of thickened mucus. E. None of the answers are correct.
C. The defective protein coded by the gene cannot transport molecules across the cell membrane.
How are sickle-cell anemia and cystic fibrosis related? A. They are both found mainly in Caucasian people. B. They are both inherited as autosomal dominant genes. C. They are both due to mutations in a single gene. D. They are both due to chromosomal translocations. E. They both result in mutant forms of hemoglobin being produced.
C. They are both due to mutations in a single gene.
Identify the structural features found in ATP. A. a nitrogenous base, a deoxyribose sugar, and one phosphate group B. a nitrogenous base, a ribose sugar, and one phosphate group C. a nitrogenous base, a ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups D. a nucleoside, a ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups E. a nitrogenous base, a ribose sugar, and two phosphate groups
C. a nitrogenous base, a ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups
In fruit flies, brown body color is dominant to black body color. A brown fruit fly is crossed with a black fruit fly. Both flies are purebred. What will the offspring's genotypes be? A. 1/2 BB, 1/2 bb B. 1/4 bb, 3/4 Bb C. all Bb D. 1/4 bb, 1/2 Bb, 1/4 BB E. 1/3 BB, 2/3 Bb
C. all Bb
Which of these photosynthetic pigment(s) appear(s) the most red? A. chlorophyll a B. chlorophyll b C. carotenoids D. chlorophyll b and carotenoids E. All answers are correct.
C. carotenoids
In peas, yellow color and round shape are dominant to green color and wrinkled shape, which are recessive. If you have a round, yellow pea and want to know its genotype, what kind of pea should you breed it with? A. yellow-round B. yellow-wrinkled C. green-wrinkled D. green-round E. any type
C. green-wrinkled
what are B lymphocytes?
CD-19/20. Mature in the marrow ONLY and then migrate into lymphoid tissue. Dif into plasma cells. Function as APC as well, produce antibodies
What elements make up 4% of living matter?
Calcium, Phosphorus, Potassium, Sulfur, Sodium, Chlorine, Magnesium
cryptic coloration
Camouflage; makes an organism difficult to spot.
tertiary consumer
Carnivore that eats carnivores.
secondary consumer
Carnivore that eats herbivores.
contractile vacuole
Cavity in the cytoplasm of some protists that collects water and discharges it from the cell
interphase
Cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division; consists of G1, S, and G2 phases.
peptidoglycan
Cell wall of prokaryotes, but NOT ARCHAEA. Made of a sugar polymer and polypeptide.
basement membrane
Cells at the base of an epithelial layer are attached to this.
glial cells
Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.
what is cDNA?
Complementary DNA, and a gene without introns because it has been created backwards from the mRNA that has already been processed by the cell.
citric acid cycle
Completes the breakdown of glucose by oxidizing a derivative of pyruvate to carbon dioxide.
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
Composed of a sugar ribose, nitrogenous base adenine, and a chain of three phosphate groups bonded to it.
ecosystem
Consists of all the organisms living in a community as well as all the abiotic factors with which they interact.
eukaryotic cells
Contain a nucleus and other organelles that are bound by membranes.
medulla oblongata
Contains centers that control several visceral functions, including breathing, heart and blood vessel activity, swallowing, vomiting, and digestion.
adenylyl cyclase
Converts ATP to cyclic AMP in response to an extracellular signal.
capsule
Covers the cell wall in prokaryotes.
Hersey-Chase Experiment
Devised an experiment that showed that only the DNA of T2 phages enters a bacterial cell during infection.
phylograms
Diagram in which the length of a branch reflects number of changes in a DNA sequence.
cladogram
Diagram that shows patterns of shared characteristics.
cubiodal epithelium
Dice-shaped cells.
geometric isomer
Differ in arrangement around a double bond.
structural isomers
Differ in arrangement of atoms.
Question involving MyoD Protein...
D, B&C only
A boy is colorblind, although neither of his parents is. Colorblindness is an X-linked recessive trait. If his parents have a daughter, what is the probability that she will be colorblind? A. 100% B. 50% C. 75% D. 0% E. 25%
D. 0%
If both parents are heterozygous for a trait, what is the probability that a given offspring of theirs will display the recessive trait? A. 2/3 B. 3/4 C. 1/2 D. 1/4 E. 1/3
D. 1/4
Which of these processes occurs in the mitochondria? I. Glycolysis II. Citric acid cycle III. Oxidative phosphorylation A. I only B. II only C. I and II D. II and III E. I, II, and III
D. II and III
Which compound is reduced during fermentation? A. ADP B. ATP C. CO2 D. NAD+ E. NADH
D. NAD+
Which of these disorders is not a result of aneuploidy? A. Klinefelter syndrome B. triple-X syndrome C. Down syndrome D. Prader-Willi syndrome E. Turner syndrome
D. Prader-Willi syndrome
Which of the following statements is false about C4 plants? A. Corn, sugarcane and crabgrass are all C4 plants. B. C4 plants grow faster than C3 plants in tropical regions. C. Adaptations in C4 plants allow them to minimize photorespiration. D. The leaves of C4 plants have less prominent bundle sheath cells than the leaves of C3 plants. E. In C4 plants, the Calvin cycle takes place in the bundle sheath cells.
D. The leaves of C4 plants have less prominent bundle sheath cells than the leaves of C3 plants.
How did the discovery of linked genes change the understanding of Mendel's principles? A. Mendel's principles provide a good estimation, but all human traits have more complex inheritance patterns. B. The principle of segregation has turned out to be true for plants but not animals. C. Two of the traits Mendel observed are now known to be linked. D. The principle of independent assortment does not hold true for linked genes. E. Mendel's principles did not account for the fact that only males express X-linked alleles.
D. The principle of independent assortment does not hold true for linked genes.
What is the 'Philadelphia chromosome'? A. a type of chromosome seen more often in people born in Philadelphia B. a modified chromosome 9, produced as a result of chromosome translocation C. a modified chromosome 22 with a specific point mutation D. a modified chromosome 22, produced as a result of chromosome translocation E. None of the answers are correct.
D. a modified chromosome 22, produced as a result of chromosome translocation
Which molecule enters the citric acid cycle? A. glucose B. pyruvate C. ATP D. acetyl-CoA E. None of the answers are correct.
D. acetyl-CoA
Which of the following does a catalyst change during a chemical reaction? A. free energy B. enthalpy C. change in entropy D. activation energy E. free energy of reactants
D. activation energy
One possible selective advantage of photorespiration could be that it allows plants to release absorbed light energy in the absence of which of the following substances? A. oxygen B. nitrogen C. water D. carbon dioxide E. RuBisCO
D. carbon dioxide
Which of the following could be measured to construct an action spectrum? A. O2 production B. CO2 consumption C. nitrate consumption D. either O2 production or CO2 consumption E. both O2 production and nitrate consumption
D. either O2 production or CO2 consumption
Which of the following process does NOT require ATP? A. the transport of sodium ions out of a cell B. the synthesis of glutamine from ammonia and glutamic acid C. the beating of cilia to generate movement D. the passive diffusion of sodium ions into a neuron E. the repair of nicks in the DNA phosphate backbone
D. the passive diffusion of sodium ions into a neuron
what is the privacy concern of genetic engineering?
DNA chips that contain personal information
what is generalized transduction?
DNA from the degraded chromosome of a bacteriaphage- infected cell is packaged into new phages; random genes
what is mismatch repair?
DNA polymerase corrects errors/proofreads
Restriction Fragments
DNA segment resulting from cutting of DNA by a restriction enzyme.
decent with modification
Darwin's way of referring to evolution.
radiometric dating
Dating using decay of radioactive isotopes.
Evolution
Descent with modification; the idea that living species are descendants of ancestral species that were different from the present-day ones; also defined more narrowly as the change in the genetic composition of a population from generation to generation.
Fredrick Sanger
Determined amino acid sequence of proteins.
Meselson & Stahl
Determined that DNA replication is semiconservative.
Watson and Crick
Developed the double helix model of DNA.
reproductive rate
Difference between per capita birth and per capita death rates.
nodes of Ranvier
Gaps in the myelin sheath to which voltage-gated sodium channels are confined.
Which class of pigments is responsible for the dark red colors in leaves? A. carotenoids B. thylakoids C. chlorophylls D. chloroplasts E. anthocyanins
E. anthocyanins
How many autosomal chromosomes are present in an individual with Klinefelter syndrome? A. 47 B. 45 C. 46 D. 43
E. 44
Huntington's disease, a progressive nervous system disorder, is inherited as a dominant trait. The songwriter Woody Guthrie died of Huntington's disease. If he was heterozygous for the trait and his wife did not carry it, what was the probability that their son would develop Huntington's disease? A. 40% B. 25% C. 66% D. 10% E. 50%
E. 50
A couple's first son is colorblind, though neither parent is. Colorblindness is an X-linked recessive trait. What is the probability that the couple's second son will be colorblind? A. 0% B. 25% C. 75% D. 100% E. 50%
E. 50%
Following the entry of carbon dioxide through the stomata, trace the path of carbon dioxide in a C4 plant by placing these steps in the correct order. 1. Oxaloacetate is converted into malate. 2. Malate is broken down into pyruvate and carbon dioxide. 3. Carbon dioxide enters the Calvin cycle. 4. Malate is transported to the bundle-sheath cells. 5. The compound oxaloacetate is formed. 6. Carbon dioxide reacts with phosphoenolpyruvate. A. 3, 6, 5, 1, 4, 2 B. 6, 5, 1, 2, 4, 3 C. 5, 1, 4, 2, 6, 3 D. 6, 3, 5, 1, 4, 2 E. 6, 5, 1, 4, 2, 3
E. 6, 5, 1, 4, 2, 3
Which of the following enzymes is not used during the citric acid cycle? A. aconitase B. isocitrate dehydrogenase C. fumarase D. citrate synthase E. ATP synthase
E. ATP synthase
Which of the following factors affects how many blood cells a person has? A. contracting an infection B. the person's genes C. moving to a high altitude D. training for a triathlon E. All answers are correct.
E. All answers are correct
Decomposers consume from which level of the food web? A. tertiary consumers B. producers C. primary consumers D. secondary consumers E. All answers are correct.
E. All answers are correct.
Which of the following molecules can be used by organisms to obtain energy? A. glycerol B. glucose C. amino acids D. fatty acids E. All answers are correct.
E. All answers are correct.
Which of the following occurs during the Calvin cycle? A. Carbon is reduced and NADH is oxidized. B. Carbon is oxidized and NADP+ is reduced. C. Carbon is oxidized and NADPH is reduced. D. Water is reduced and oxygen is oxidized. E. Carbon is reduced and NADPH is oxidized.
E. Carbon is reduced and NADPH is oxidized.
What did Michael Dougherty, the director of education at the American Society of Human Genetics, suggest regarding the teaching of Mendelian inheritance? A. Dougherty has criticized the proposal that teachers talk about gene variation before they introduce Mendel. B. Dougherty suggested that teachers talk about epigenetics instead of Mendel's inheritance patterns. C. Dougherty suggested Mendel should no longer be taught in genetics. D. Dougherty suggested that proving cause and effect of gene-environment interactions involves too many challenges to teach students about epigenetics. E. Dougherty suggested that teachers should talk about gene variation before they introduce Mendel
E. Dougherty suggested that teachers should talk about gene variation before they introduce Mendel
How does the first law of thermodynamics apply to metabolic reactions? A. Energy is created by catabolic reactions. B. Catalysts are required for metabolic reactions. C. Energy is destroyed in synthesis reactions. D. Enzymes are required for metabolic reactions. E. Endergonic reactions must be paired with exergonic reactions.
E. Endergonic reactions must be paired with exergonic reactions.
Which of the following molecules is the ultimate source of electrons for the electron transport chain in the light-dependent reactions? A. NADPH B. ATP C. NADP+ D. O2 E. H2O
E. H2O
proton-motive force
Emphasizes the capactiy of the gradient to preform work.
net primary production (NPP)
Energy used by primary producers for respiration.
adaptive radiation
Evolution of many new species from a common ancestor as a result of introduction to new environments.
Divergent Evolution
Evolution that occurs when a population becomes isolated from the rest of the species, becomes exposed to new selective pressures, and evolves into a new species.
phylogeny
Evolutionary history of a species or group of species.
shared derived character
Evolutionary novelty unique to that clade.
Miller and Urey Experiment
Experiment that found that organic molecules can form in a strongly reducing atmosphere.
sign stimulus
External sensory stimulus that triggers a fixed action pattern.
What is bioinformatics? What is it used for?
Extracting useful biological information from data sets such as DNA + protein interactions
glycogen
Extremely branched polymer of glucose.
what is sign stimuli?
FAPS are initiated by external stimuli called sign stimuli
facilitators
Foundation species have positive effects on other species.
X linked genes
Genes found on the X chromosome.
alternative RNA splicing
Genes giving rise to two or more different polypeptides depending upon which segments are treated as exons.
linked genes
Genes located on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together in genetic crosses.
sex linked genes
Genes located on the sex chromosomes.
biogeography
Geographic distribution of species.
A sexually reproducing animal has two unlinked genes, one for head shape (H) and one for tail length (T). Its genotype is HhTt. Which of the following genotypes is possible in a gamete from this organism?
HT
autopolyploid
Having more than two sets of chromosomes from a single species.
What did Darwin mean by exhibiting the greatest fitness?
Having the best traits
threatened species
Species that is likely to become endangered.
Hardy-Weinberg Theorem
Helps measure changes in allele frequencies over time . Provides an "ideal" population to use as a basis of comparison.
primary consumer
Herbivore.
genetic variation
Heritable variations in a population.
dendrites
Highly branched extensions that receive signals from other neurons.
pilli
Hollow tubes used to move cells or exchange DNA between bacteria by conjunction.
synapsis
Homologous chromosomes pair up, aligned gene by gene.
orthologous genes
Homologous genes passed in a straight line from one generation to the next.
Orthologous Genes
Homologous genes that are found in different species because of speculation.
Paralogous Genes
Homologous genes that are found in the same genome as a result of gene duplication.
paralogous genes
Homologous genes that are found in the same genome as a result of gene duplication.
genetic annealing
Horizontal gene transfer between different bacteria and archae.
insulin
Hormone produced by the pancreas that helps to decrease blood sugar.
A woman who has blood type A positive has a daughter who is type O positive and a son who is type B negative. Rh positive is a trait that shows simple dominance over Rh negative and is designated by the alleles R and r, respectively. A third gene for the MN blood group has codominant alleles M and N. Which of the following is a possible partial genotype for the son?
IBi
secondary immune response
Immune response after the body has already been exposed to a specific antigen. Response is faster, of greater magnitude, and more prolonged.
primary immune response
Immune response the first time the body is exposed to a particular antigen. Does not peak until 10-17 days after exposure.
passive immunity
Immunity conferred by transferring antibodies from an individual who is immune to a pathogen to another individual.
innate immunity
Immunity that is present before exposure and effective from birth. Responds to a broad range of pathogens.
acquired immunity
Immunity that is present only after exposure and is highly specific.
Nucleic Acid Probe
In DNA technology, a labeled single-stranded nucleic acid molecule used to tag specific nucleotide sequence in a nucleic acid sample. Molecules of the probe-hydrogen bond to the complementary sequence wherever it occurs, radioactive or other labeling of the probe allows its location to be detected.
Phylum
In Linnaean classification, the taxonomic category above class.
Family
In Linnaean classification, the taxonomic category above genus.
what is a nonpolar covalent bond?
In a nonpolar covalent bond, the electrons are shared equally between the two atoms. ex: Bethany and Demarco's relationship
what is a cross-match?
It involves mixing small samples of donor blood with recipient plasma and recipient blood with donor plasma and then examining the mixtures for agglutination. If aggultination does not occur the two bloods are a good mixture.
Which is an example of a Cline?
In one species of rabbit, the ones that evolved in the cold, snowy north are white while the ones that evolved in the south are brown.
terminator
In prokaryotes, a special sequence of nucleotides in DNA that marks the end of a gene.
Denaturation
In proteins, a process in which a protein unravels and loses its native conformation, thereby becoming biologically inactive, In DNA, the separation of the two strands of the double helix. Denaturation occurs under extreme conditions of pH, salt concentration, and temperature.
denaturation
In proteins, a process in which a protein unravels and loses its native conformation, thereby becoming biologically inactive. In DNA, the separation of the two strands of the double helix.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Includes the brain and spinal cord.
behavioral isolation
Incompatible courtship rituals, pheromones, or bird songs.
fitness
Individuals whose inherited traits confer an advantage have a better chance of surviving in a given environment and will leave more offspring.
top-down model
Influence moves from top trophic levels to bottom. (V <-- H)
cristae
Infoldings of the inner membrane of a mitochondrion that houses the electon transport chain and the enzyme catalyzing the synthesis of ATP.
epigenetic inheritance
Inheritance of traits transmitted by mechanisms not directly involving the nucleotide sequence.
what are the stages of transcription?
Initiation, Elongation, Termination
inflammtory response
Innate response with the purpose of containing a site of damage, localizing the response, eliminating the invader and restore tissue function.
parasitoidism
Insects that lay eggs on or in living host; larvae feed on body of host, eventually killing it. (+/-)
integral proteins
Integral proteins that span the membrane.
transmembrane proteins
Integral proteins that span the membrane.
conservation biology
Integrates ecology, physiology, molecular biology, genetics and evolutionary biology to conserve biological diversity.
commensalism
Interaction between species that benefits one but neither helps or harms the other. (+/0)
transfer RNA (tRNA)
Interpreter of a series of codons along a mRNA molecule.
What is an essential trace element in vertebrates?
Iodine
Which trace element is needed by all forms of life?
Iron
acetyl-CoA
Is formed when pyruvate first enters into the mitochondria via active transport.
cell-to-cell recognition
Is the cell's ability to distinguish one type of neighboring cell from another. The glycogalyx (carbohydrate attached to plasma membrane). The glycocalyx is responsible for such phenomena as contact inhibition, the normal trait of cells to stop dividing when they become too crowded.
island equilibrium model
Islands great for study due to isolation and limited size; can study species diversity and extinction rates.
radioisotopes
Isotopes that have unstable nuclei and undergo radioactive decay.
cooperativity
It amplifies the response of enzymes to substrates.
Why is glycolysis considered to be one of the first metabolic pathways to have evolved?
It does not involved organelles or specialized structures, does not require oxygen, and is present in most organisms.
If a cell has completed the first meiotic division and is just beginning meiosis II, which of the following is an appropriate description of its contents?
It has half the amount of DNA as the cell that began meiosis.
What is the role of DNA ligase in the elongation of the lagging strand during DNA replication?
It joins Okazaki fragments together.
energy hypothesis
Length of a food chain is limited by the inefficiency of energy transfer.
r-selected species
Life history traits maximize reproductive success in uncrowded environments. Many small offspring that mature quickly, little if any parental care.
K - selected species
Life history traits sensitive to population density. Small number of large offspring, extensive parental care, repeated reproduction.
food web
Linked food chains.
Be able to identify a steroid?
Lipids composed of carbon skeleton consisting of 4 fused rings
nitric oxide (NO)
Local regulator that regulates blood oxygen levels, A gas produced by many types of cells that functions as a local regulator and as a neurotransmitter.
dynamic stability hypothesis
Long food chains are less stable than short chains.
axon
Long nerve fiber that conducts away from the cell body of the neuron.
what are telomeres?
Long stretches of short nonsense sequences that preserve the integrity and stability of chromosomes at the ends of linear chromosomes, maintained by telomerase, everytime DNA replicates they get shorter, so they're sort of an internal clock
cartilage
Made of collagenous fibers in matrix of chondroitin sulfate.
steroids
Made of four rings of carbon.
heterozygous advantage
Maintains recessive alleles in a population,
thalamus
Major input center for sensory information going to the cerebrum and the main output center for motor information leaving the cerebrum.
thylakoids
Membranous structures within a chloroplast that serve as the site for light harvesting in photosynthesis.
what are memory cells?
Memory cells recognize the second attack of the same pathogen and attack it much faster, secondary immune response 2-7 days
catabolism
Metabolic pathways that break down molecules, releasing energy.
anabolism
Metabolic pathways that construct molecules, requiring energy.
anabolic pathways
Metabolic pathways that consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones.
catabolic pathways
Metabolic pathways that release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds.
MRSA
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.
repeated reproduction
Species that reproduce over and over.
mechanical isolation
Morphological differences prevent fertilization.
neutrophils
Most abundant white blood cell., The most abundant type of white blood cell. Phagocytic and tend to self-destruct as they destroy foreign invaders, limiting their life span to a few days.
The free energy for the oxidation of glucose to CO2 and water is -686 kcal/mol and the free energy for the reduction of NAD+ to NADH is +53 kcal/mol. Why are only two molecules of NADH formed during glycolysis when it appears that as many as a dozen could be formed?
Most of the free energy available from the oxidation of glucose remains in pyruvate, one of the products of glycolysis.
demographic transition
Movement from a high birth rate, high death rate to a low birth rate, low death rate.
species transplant
Movement of a species to areas where it was previously absent.
dispersal
Movement of individuals away from centers of high population density or their area of origin.
emigration
Movement out of population. Decreases population size.
taxis
Movement toward or away from a stimulus.
effector cells
Muscle cells or gland cells that carry out the body's response to stimuli.
cardiac muscle
Muscle that is branched, striated, singe nucleated.
smooth muscle
Muscle that is not striated, is single nucleated.
skeletal muscle
Muscle that is striated, multinucleated.
frameshift mutation
Mutation occurring when the number of nucleotides inserted or deleted is not a multiple of three, resulting in improper grouping of nucleotides into codons.
detritivores
Obtain energy from detritus.
Given a molecules know how to make 1L of a .5M solution
Obtain mass of molecule, multiply by 3.01x10^23, add to 1 liter of water
exocytosis
Occurs when a cell secretes certain biological molecules by the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane.
recombinant types
Offspring who have inherited new combinations of genes and have phenotypes that don't match either parental phenotypes.
parental types
Offspring with a phenotype that matches one of the parental phenotypes.
stromatolites
Oldest known fossils formed from many layers of bacteria and sediment.
how do viruses multiply?
Once a virus is inside a cell a virus takes over many of the cells functions. It instructs the cells to produce a virus proteins and genetic material. These proteins and genetic material assemble into new cells
Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)
One base pair variation in the genome sequence.
polyandry
One female, several males.
monogamous
One male mating with one female.
polygyny
One male, several females.
allele
One of the alternative forms of a gene that governs a characteristic, such as hair color.
enteric division
One of three divisions of the autonomic nervous system; consists of networks of neurons in the digestive tract, pancreas, and gallbladder.
Archaea
One of two prokaryotic domains, the other being Bacteria.
asexual reproduction
One parent produces a genetically identical offspring by mitosis.
What types of individuals would be most successful in an evolutionary sense?
One's with specific traits that allow it to reproduce
10% rule
Only 10% of the total energy produced at each trophic level is available to the next level. The amount of energy passed up to the levels of the food pyramid reduces as you go up.
chemoautotrophs
Organisms that use hydrogen sulfide or other chemicals as energy source instead of light.
true-breeding
Organisms that, when reproducing, create offspring of all the same variety.
speciation
Origin of new species and the source of biological diversity.
what enzyme catalyzes the third step of glycolysis?
PFK-phosphofructokinase. It inhibits glycolysis, stopping it when the cell ahs enough ATP (allosteric inhibitor)
homologous chromosomes
Pair of chromosomes that are the same size, same appearance and same genes.
endoparasites
Parasites that live within the body of their host.
monohybrids
Parents that are heterozygous for one character.
dihybrids
Parents that are heterozygous for two characters.
facilitated diffusion
Passive diffusion that is aided by transport proteins, but that does not require cellular energy.
Polyphyletic
Pertaining to a group of taxa derived from two or more different ancestors.
Monophyletic
Pertaining to a group of taxa that consists of a common ancestor and all of its descendants. A monophyletic taxon is equivalent to a clade.
Paraphyletic
Pertaining to a group of taxa that consists of a common ancestor and some, but not all, of its descendants.
Transgenic
Pertaining to an individual plant or animal whose genome contains a gene introduced from another organism, either from the same or a different species.
karyotype
Photograph of chromosomes grouped in order and in pairs.
photoautotrophs
Photosynthetic bacteria.
torpor
Physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases.
metaphase plate
Plane midway between the two poles of the cell where chromosomes line up during metaphase.
chitin
Polysaccharide found in arthropod exoskeletons and fungal cell walls.
exponential growth
Population increase under ideal conditions, when r > 0. Forms a J-shaped curve.
Which part of the theory of evolution did Darwin develop after reading Thomas Mathus?
Populations tend to grow exponentially, overpopulate, and exceed their resources.
life expectancy at birth
Predicted average length of life at birth.
aminocentesis
Prenatal diagnostic technique that involves inserting a needle to obtain a sample of amniotic fluid that surrounds the fetus.
chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
Prenatal diagnostic technique that involves taking a sample of tissue from the chorion.
climate
Prevailing weather conditions of an area.
what is host range?
Refers to the spectrum of hosts that a virus can infect.
midbrain
Region between the hindbrain and the forebrain; it is important for hearing and sight.
operator
Region of DNA that controls RNA polymerase's access to a set of genes with related functions.
recticular formation
Registers and controls activity level, increases excitement, and helps generate sleep.
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a recessive human disorder in which an individual cannot appropriately metabolize a particular amino acid. The amino acid is not otherwise produced by humans. Therefore, the most efficient and effective treatment is which of the following?
Regulate the diet of the affected persons to severely limit the uptake of the amino acid.
growth factors
Regulatory proteins that ensure that the events of cell division occur in the proper sequence and at the correct rate.
disulphide bridges
Reinforce tertiary structure.
migration
Relatively long-distance movement of individuals, usually on a seasonal basis.
telomeres
Repeated DNA sequences at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes.
iteroparity
Repeated reproduction.
communication
Signals among animals that include sounds, odors, visual displays, and touches that produce responses.
Analogy
Similarity between two species that is due to convergent evolution rather than to decent from a common ancestor with the same trait.
homology
Similarity resulting from common ancestry.
what happens in metaphase?
Sister chromatids are pulled by motor proteins along the spindle apparatus toward the center of the cell-then they line up along the middle or "equator"
ribosomal P site
Site that holds tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain.
ribosomal A site
Site that holds the tRNA carrying the next amino acid to be added to the chain.
Ribosomal E site
Site where discharged tRNAs leave the ribosome.
Okazaki fragments
Small fragments of DNA produced on the lagging strand during DNA replication, joined later by DNA ligase to form a complete strand.
nucleolus
Small, dense region within most nuclei in which the assembly of proteins begins.
cocci
Spherical bacteria.
Batesian mimicry
Species mimics the appearance of an unpalatable or harmful.
outgroups
Species or group of species closely related to the ingroup.
dominant species
Species that are the most abundant or have the most biomass.
big-bang reproduction
Species that have only a single reproductive opportunity, such as agave and salmon.
Convergent Evolution
The evolution of similar features in independent evolutionary lineages.
Phylogeny
The evolutionary history of a species or group of related species.
glucagon
The antagonist of insulin that helps increase blood sugar. It stimulates the liver to break down glycogen into glucose.
transcription initiation complex
The assembly of transcription factors and RNA polymerase.
histone acetylation
The attachment of acetyl groups to certain amino acids of histone proteins.
differential gene expression
The expression of different sets of genes by cells with the same genome.
cotransport
The coupling of the "downhill" diffusion of one substance to the "uphill" transport of another against its own concentration gradient.
hybridization
The crossing of two true-breeding parents.
Genetic Variability
The different kinds of genetic information found in a particular group - family, population, species, etc.
osmosis
The diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.
Genetic Engineering
The direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes.
Eukarya
The domain that includes all eukaryotic organisms.
what is the electron transport chain?
The electrons of the hydrogen atoms pass through a series of co-enzymes located in the christae of the mitochondria.
ATP synthase
The enzyme that make ATP from ADPand inorganic phosphate.
protein kinase
The enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to protein.
cleavage furrow
The first sign of cleavage in an animal cell; a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate.
pioneer species
The first species that colonize new area, such as lichen and mosses.
Genome
The genetic material of an organism or virus; the complete complement of an organism's or virus's genes along with its noncoding nucleic acid sequences.
plasma membrane
The membrane at the boundary of every cell that acts as a selective barrier, thereby regulating the cell's chemical composition.
resting potential
The membrane potential of a neuron that is at rest.
phosphorylation
The metabolic process of introducing a phosphate group into an organic molecule.
basal metabolic rate (BMR)
The metabolic rate of a nongrowing, resting, fasting, nonstressed endotherm.
standard metabolic rate (SMR)
The metabolic rate of a resting, fasting, nonstressed ectotherm.
threshold potential
The minimum membrane potential that must be reached in order for an action potential to be generated.
spatial learning
The modification of behavior based on experience with the spatial structure of the environment.
learning
The modification of behavior based on specific experiences.
RNA processing
The modification of mRNA before it leaves the nucleus that is unique to eukaryotes.
receptor-mediated endocytosis
The movement of specific molecules into a cell by the inward budding of membranous vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being taken in; enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances.
postsynaptic cell
The neuron, muscle, or gland cell that receives the signal from a neuron.
leading strand
The new continuous complementary DNA strand synthesized along the template strand in the mandatory 5' to 3' direction.
realized niche
The niche species actually occupies.
fundamental niche
The niche species could potentially occupy.
mitochondria
The organelles in which nutrients are converted to energy.
peripheral proteins
The proteins of a membrane that are not embedded in the lipid bilayer; they are appendages loosely bound to the surface of the membrane.
F plasmid
The plasmid form of the F factor.
grey matter
The portions of the central nervous system that are abundant in cell bodies of neurons rather than axons. Unmyelinated.
hindbrain
The posterior portion of the brain including cerebellum and brainstem.
water potential
The potential energy of water relative to pure, deionized water in reference conditions. It quantifies the tendency of water to move from one area to another due to osmosis, gravity, mechanical pressure, or matrix effects including surface tension. The greater the conc. of water molecules in a system, the greater the total k.e. of the molecules and the higher its so-called water potential. greek letter-psi
one gene-one polypeptide hypothesis
The premise that a gene is a segment of DNA that codes for one polypeptide.
turgor pressure
The pressure inside of a cell as a cell pushes itself against the cell wall.
Hardy- Weinberg Principle
The principle that states frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a population remain constant from generation to generation, given that only Mendelian segregation and recombination of alleles are at work
signal transduction pathway
The process by which a signal on a cell's surface is converted into a specific cellular response.
antigen presentation
The process by which an MHC molecule binds to a fragment of an intracellular protein antigen and carries it to the cell surface, where it is displayed and can be recognized by a T cell.
morphogenesis
The process by which an organism takes shape and the differentiated cells occupy their appropriate locations.
gene cloning
The production of multiple copies of a gene.
what is spermatogenesis?
The production of sperm occuring in seminiferous tubules. Spermatogonia undergo mitosis to produce 4 haploid sperms of equal size.
capsid
The protein shell that encloses a viral genome. It may be rod-shaped, polyhedral, or more complex in shape.
hormone
The secretion of an endocrine gland that is transmitted by the blood to the tissue on which it has a specific effect.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.
Gel Electrophoresis
The separation of nucleic acids or proteins, on the basis of their size and electrical charge, by measuring their rate of movement through an electrical field in a gel.
gel electrophoresis
The separation of nucleic acids or proteins, on the basis of their size and electrical charge, by measuring their rate of movement through an electrical field in a gel.
insertion sequence
The simplest kind of transposable element, consisting of inverted repeats of DNA flanking a gene for transposase, the enzyme that catalyzes transposition.
Biogeography
The study of the past and present geographic distribution of species.
Genomics
The study of whole sets of genes and their interactions.
biosphere
The sum of all ecosystems.
translation
The synthesis of a polypeptide, which occurs under the direction of mRNA.
S phase
The synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated.
endocrine system
The system of glands that produce endocrine secretions that help to control bodily metabolic activity.
Proteomics
The systematic study of the full protein sets encoded by genomes.
inclusive fitness
The total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and by providing aid that enables other close relatives to increase the production of their offspring.
Horizontal Gene Transfer
The transfer of genes from one genome to another through mechanisms such as transposable elements, plasmid exchange, viral activity, and perhaps fusions of different organisms.
what is tRNA?
The transfer protein that brings amino acids to the ribosomes during protein synthesis.
presynaptic cell
The transmitting neuron in a synapse.
Binomial
The two-part, latinized format for naming a species, consisting of the genus and specific epithet; a binomen.
genes
Units of heredity made up of DNA.
Figure: Grains represent radioactive material within the replicating eye. Question: In an experiment, DNA is allowed to replicate in an environment with all necessary enzymes, dATP, dCTP, gDTP, and radioactively labeled dTTP (3H thymidine) for several minutes and then switched to nonradioactive medium. It is then viewed by electron microscopy and autoradiography. The figure above represents the results. Which of the following is the most likely interpretation?
There are two replications forks going in opposite directions.
natural killer (NK) cells
These cells kill cancer cells and cells infected with viruses. They bind to their targets and deliver a lethal burst of chemicals to produce holes in the target cell's membrane leading to its destruction.
local regulators
These regulators influence cells in the vicinity of them.
How do cells at the completion of meiosis compare with cells that have replicated their DNA and are just about to begin meiosis?
They have half the number of chromosomes and one-fourth the amount of DNA.
what are pili?
They join bacterial cells allowing for transfer of genetic material
chromosomes
Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.
triplet code
Three-nucleotide long set that specifies a specific amino acid for a polypeptide chain.
brown fat
Tissue in neck and between shoulders of some mammals that is specialized for rapid heat production.
muscle tissue
Tissue made of cells capable of contracting.
glandualar epithelia
Tissue that absorbs or secretes chemical solutions.
loose connective tissue
Tissue that binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place. Contains collagenous, elastic, and recticular fibers.
epithelial tissue
Tissue that covers outside of the body and lines organs and cavities.
nervous tissue
Tissue that senses stimuli and transmits signals.
adipose tissue
Tissue that stores fat.
organs
Tissues are organized into:, group of tissues that work together to perform closely related functions.
multiplication rule
To determine the probability, we multiply the probability of one event by the probability of another.
synthesis
To put together.
biomass
Total dry mass of all individuals in a population.
biological magnification
Toxins become more concentrated in successive trophic levels.
shared primitive character
Trait shared beyond the taxon.
What was the most significant conclusion that Gregor Mendel drew from his experiments with pea plants?
Traits are inherited in discrete units, and are not the results of "blending."
life history
Traits that affect an organism's schedule of reproduction and survival.
Schwann cells
Type of glia in the PNS, Supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system responsible for the formation of myelin.
oligodendrocytes
Type of glial cell in the CNS that wrap axons in a myelin sheath.
bottom-up model
Unidirectional influence from lower to higher trophic levels. (V --> H)
fertilization
Union of gametes.
plasmolyze
When the membrane shrinks away from the cell wall as a result of water loss.
complete dominance
When the phenotypes of the heterozygote and dominant homozygote are indistinguishable.
redox reactions
When there is a transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another.
sexual reproduction
When two parents give unique combination of genes to offspring.
temporal isolation
When two species breed at different times of day, season, or years.
habitat isolation
When two species encounter each other only rarely.
codominance
When which the phenotypes of both alleles are exhibited in the heterozygote.
what is bacterial transformation?
When you introduce small pieces of DNA into bacteria so that the bacteria can start to transcribe the foreign gene of interest
what is molecular formula?
a chemical formula that shows a number and kinds of atoms in a molecule but not the arrangement of atoms
what is a plasmid?
a circular, DNA molecule that is naturally found in some bacteria
Which of the following types of mutation, resulting in an error in the mRNA just after the AUG start of translation, is likely to have the most serious effect on the polypeptide product?
a deletion of two nucleotides
what is DNA?
a double helix, two antiparallel strands, one 5' to 3' and the other 3' to 5' (upside down), polymer of repeating nucleotides
what is AIDS?
a) Profound suppression of cell-mediated immunity is the hallmark of AIDS b) Destruction of CD4+ T cells is the major source of immunosuppression c) Infection of the monocyte/macrophage family also plays a role in the pathogenesis of HIV. This cell lineage also expresses CD4 on their cell surfaces. Their significance to disease progression is potentially related to their:
what do enzymes do?
act as catalyst to speed up reactions by lowering activation energy
what does a macrophage do?
acts as an APC (antigen presenting cell) it engulfs a bacterium and presents a fragment of it to the cell surface by an MHC II molecule
what is the Krebs cycle of aerobic respiration?
also called citric acid cycle takes place in mitochondrial matrix and requires pyruvate turns twice pyruvate combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA each turn releases 3 NADH, 1 ATP, 1 FADH and the waste product, CO2 ATP is produced by substrate level phosphorylation
what is specific heat?
amount of heat a substance must absorb to increase 1 gram of the substance by 1 degree C
what are phospholipids?
amphiipathic-hydrophilic tail and hydrophobic head
A mutation results in a defective enzyme A. Which of the following would be a consequence of that mutation?
an accumulation of A and no production of B and C
what are antibodies?
an immonoglobin, group of globular proteins five classes: IgD, IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE
what is an anion?
an ion with a negative charge
what is plasmodesmata?
an opening that allows movement of molecules between cells
critical period
an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development
what is cell respiration?
an oxidative process by which cells extract energy stored in food and transfer that energy to molecules of ATP
Which of the following types of reactions would decrease the entropy within a cell?
anabolic reactions
what is fermentation?
anerobic, catabolic process that consists of glycolysis plus lactic acid or alcohol fermentation. It originated when there was no free oxygen in the atmosphere of earth.
Which of the following contains prokaryote organisms capable of surviving extreme conditions of heat and salt concentrations?
archaea.
what are lipids?
are all hydrophobic-do not dissolve in water 1 glycerol and three fatty acids fats, oils, waxes, steroids
what is excited state?
atom absorbs energy, electrons move to a higher energy level
what are isotopes?
atoms of one element that vary only in the number of neutrons in the nucleus
what are isotopes?
atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons
what are covalent bonds?
atoms share elctrons
Figure 15.2: The numbers in the boxes are the recombination frequencies in between the genes (in percent). Question: In a series of mapping experiments, the recombination frequencies for four different linked genes of Drosophila were determined as shown in Figure 15.2. What is the order of these genes on a chromosome map?
b-rg-cn-vg
what is altruism?
behavior that reduces an individual's reproductive fitness (the animal may die) while increasing the fitness of the group or family
The differences in sparrow songs among sympatric species of sparrows are examples of ..
behavioral isolation
what is a tight junction?
belts around the epithelial cells that line organs and serve as a barrier to prevent leakage into or out of those organs
how are Th cells activated?
binding to the MHC-antigen complex, activation is enhanced by interleukin-1 and CD4 protein from the Th cell
Accuracy in the translation of mRNA into the primary structure of a polypeptide depends on specificity in the
bonding of the anticodon to the codon and the attachment of amino acid to tRNAs.
How does hydrolysis happens?
bonds between monomers broken by addition of H2O molecules
what are chemical bonds?
bonds involve the sharing, gaining, and losing, of electrons in the valence shell-trying to fill valence shell
in what direction do bacteria replicate?
both directions
how can an electron change the shell it occupies?
by absorbing or losing an amount of energy equal to the difference in potential energy between its position in the old shell and that in the new shell
what is a facultative anaerobe?
can tolerate the presence of oxygen, but simply do not use it
what is an obligate anaerobe?
cannot live in an environment containing oxygen
What can we contribute the complexity and variety of organic molecules to?
carbon
what do carbs consist of?
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen oxygen-carbon ration: 2:1 1 gram of carbs=4 calories
What functional groups can act like acids?
carboxyl
what are the four classes of organic compounds?
carbs, lipids, proteins, fats
thoracic cavity
cavity housing lungs and heart
what is alcohol fermentation?
cells convert pyruvate to ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide, which is released as a waste product. In the porcess, NADH is oxidized back to NAD -used by bread and beer industries
what is a centromere?
center of a chromosome that holds the two chromatids together
what are the strongest kinds of chemical bonds?
covalent and ionic
Graph: Activity of various enzymes at various temperatures (a) and at various pH (b). Question: Which temperature and pH profile curves on the graphs were most likely generated from analysis of an enzyme from a human stomach where conditions are strongly acid?
curves 1 and 4
Graph: Activity of various enzymes at various temperatures (a) and at various pH (b). Question: Which curves on the graph may represent the temperature and pH profiles of an enzyme taken from a bacterium that lives in a mildly alkaline hot springs at temperatures of 70°C or higher?
curves 3 and 5
what is spring overturn?
cycling of nutrients in a lake; ice melts and sinks, and the nutrients on the bottom of the lake are brought to the surface
What are the names of the two pyrimidine nitrogenous bases?
cytosine, thymine
How does heating affect molecular structures in aqueous solutions?
denatures proteins
what does DNA stand for?
deoxyribonucleic acid
what subatomic particles are directly involved in chemical reactions?
electrons
What subatomic particles are electrically charged?
electrons and protons electrons-1 unit of negative charge protons-1 unit of positive charge
what is a nonpolar covalent bond?
electrons are shared equally (in diatomic molecules such as H-H, O-O)
what are valence electrons?
electrons on the outer most shell
who was Niko Tinbergen?
elucidation of fixed action patterns
what do atoms consist of mostly?
empty space
what is cooperation?
enables the individuals to carry out behavior such a hunting, that they can do as a group more successfully than they can do separately
what is noncompetitive inhibition?
enzyme contains more than one active site and the substrates do not resemble each other, however, the binding of either substrate will prevent the other one from binding ex: in the operon, the binding of the repressor to the operator on the DNA blocks the binding site for RNA polymerase and no transcription can occur
what is conjugation?
hollow bridge forms between two bacterial cells, and genes move from one cell to another
what are microtubules?
hollow tubes made out of protein tubulin that make up the cilia, flagella, and spindle fibers
The wing of the bat and a human's arm have different functions and appear very different. Yet, the underlying anatomy is basically the same. Therefore, these structures are examples of...
homology
What types of bonding in a water molecule?
hydrogen, covalent bond
What functional groups form polymers by dehydration synthesis?
hydroxyl
bulk flow
i.e. movement of blood in humans , sap in trees The movement of a fluid due to a difference in pressure between two locations.
what are isomers?
organic compounds that have the same molecule forumula but different structures; 3 forms
what happens to the energy stored in ATP?
it is instantly available for cellular work
what is the third line of defense?
it's specific and relies on B lympocytes and T lymphocytes which originate in the bone marrow. They circulate in the blood, lymph, and lymphatic tissue and recognize different specific antigens (substances that cause the production of antibodies)
what is the main tool for studying cells?
microscope
what are MTOCs?
microtubule organizing centers they organize spindle fibers and give rise to the spindle apparatus
If A, B, and C are all required for growth, a strain mutant for the gene-encoding enzyme B would be capable of growing of growing on which of the following media?
minimal medium supplemented with C only
what is a pH of 7?
neutral
how do antibodies destroy invaders (2 ways)?
neutralize the antigens, causing them to clump forming an antigen-antibody complex, which is then phagocytosed by macrophages complement fixation-using the complement to lyse the cells
What do we know about Hermann Kolbe's experiment? What did it prove?
organic compounds may have been synthesized abiocally
what is the cell wall?
not found in animal cells made of cellulose in plants and chitin in fungi
what is an inducible operon?
not transcribed unless they are activated by an inducer, also called Lac operon
what makes up a virus?
nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) and a protein coat called a capsid
what does meiosis produce?
occurs in sexually reproducing organisms and results in cells with half the chromosome number of the parent cell (n)
what is associative learning?
one stimulus becomes linked to another through experience
what is specialized transduction?
only certain genes packaged into the phages in the cell
what are plastids?
only in plants and algae double membrane 1. chlorplasts-site of photosynthesis, stacks of grana in the stroma 2. leucoplasts-store starch and found in roots 3. chromoplasts-store cartenoid pigments
what are dominance hierarchies?
pecking order behaviors that dictate the social position an animal has in a culture
What type of bond is created during the formation of primary structure of a protein?
peptide bonds
How are the 5' ends of a polynucleotides of DNA attached?
phosphodiester linkages to 3' end.
what is a prion?
protein, very infectious) causes disease in nervous system ex. kurucannibalistic, mad-cow virus)
What class of polymers has the greatest functional variety?
proteins
If cells are grown in a medium containing radioactive 15N, which molecules would be labeled?
proteins, nucleic acids
what is the electron transport chain?
proton gradient/proton pump think of traveling hydrogens
what did Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty do?
proved Griffiths transformation factor is DNA
what carries particles across the membrane in active transport?
pumps and carriers
what is the sodium-potassium pump?
pumps sodium ions to outside the cell and pumps potassium ions to inside the cell, this is what is constantly happening when a neuron is in it's resting state
Radish flowers may be red, purple, or white. A cross between a red-flowered plant and a white-flowered plant yields all-purple offspring. The part of the radish we eat may be oval or long, with long being the dominant characteristic. If true-breeding red long radishes are crossed with true-breeding white oval radishes, the F1 will be expected to be which of the following?
purple and long
what is lactic acid fermentation?
pyruvate from glycolysis is reduced to form lactate and NADH gets oxidized back to NAD -used by human skeletal muscles when they get tired -used to produce yogurt and cheese -lactate can be converted back to pyruvate in the liver if oxygen is returned to the muscles
what is rRNA?
rRNA is ribosomal RNA- along with proteins comprise the structure of 2 subunits of the ribosome.
what are restriction fragments?
restriction fragments need to have sticky ends on the restriction sites
what is capillary action?
results from the combined forces of cohesion and adhesion
what kind of virus is AIDS?
retrovirus
what does RNA stand for?
ribonucleic acid
In cattle, roan coat color (mixed red and white hairs) occurs in the heterozygous (Rr) offspring of red (RR) and white (rr) homozygotes. Which of the following crosses would produce offspring in the ratio of 1 red : 2 roan : 1 white?
roan x roan
Which of the following is the least inclusive?
species.
what is RNA processing?
split and splicing of immature mRNA to form a mature mRNA
Human newborns usually weigh between 6-8 pounds.
stabilizing selection
what are atoms composed of?
subatomic particles
what is x-ray crystallography?
technique used to determine the 3D structure of a molecule to do it, purified samples of DNA are crystallized and bombarded X-rays
what is energy?
the ability to do work or cause change
what is mitosis?
the actual dividing of the nucleus, continous process
what is binary fission?
the asexual reproduction of a single-celled organism by division into two roughly equal parts
what does the chemical behavior of an atom depend on mostly?
the behavior of the outermost electron shells
what is a covalent bond?
the chemical bond that results from the sharing of valence electrons
what happens in translation?
the codons of an mRNA are changed into an amino acid sequence based on what they code for
what determines the shape of a molecule?
the electron orbitals
what is potential energy?
the energy an object has because of it shape or position.
what is crossing over?
the exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids of a tetrad during meiosis 1
what is countercurrent exchange?
the flow of adjacent fluids in opposite directions that maximizes the rate of simple diffusion
what is an RNA primer?
the pre-existing chain that DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the 3' end of. It actually contains RNA. A primase enzyme joins with the RNA nucleotides to form an RNA primer
what is a chemical reaction?
the process of forming new substances from reactants by breaking and making chemical bonds
how are cancer cells different from normal cells?
they do not have contact inhibition or density-dependent inhibition and keep reproducing and can metastasize in other regions of the body
plasmolysis
when a cell is in a hypertonic environment, the cell will lose water to its surroundings, shrink, and its plasma membrane will pull away from the wall
hypertonic
when comparing two solutions, the solution with the greater concentration of solutes
hypotonic
when comparing two solutions, the solution with the lesser concentration of solutes
What impact do the folds and villi of the small intestine have on absorption
They help with the surface area
Most photosynthesis takes place in the ______ stage, also known as the dominant stage, of the moss life cycle
Gametophyte
Which of the following statements about transposons is false?
They reduce the amount of DNA in a cell.
The basic structural and physiological unit of all living organisms is the: (a) aggregate (b) organelle (c) organism (d) membrane (e) cell
(e) cell
study number 32 on digestion, circulation, and respiration test
...
study number 33 on digestion, circualation, and respiration test
...
List the 5 conditions that can disturb genetic equilibrium in a population?
1. nonrandom mating 2. small population size 3. immigration or emigration 4. mutations 5. natural selection
Drosophilia has how many genes that are essential to embryonic development?
1200 genes
According to Lamarck, evolution resulted from the inheritance of ____ traits
Acquired
What is the most important role of fungi in natural ecosystems, and why is the role important?
Act as decomposes by breaking down organic matter, and releasing nutrients
How can green algae survive without the specialized tissues found in other plants?
Green algae can survive without specialized tissues because they grow in water and can directly absorb it
The difference between plant and animal development is that plants...
Grow throughout their lives.
Define Fruit.
Thick wall of tissue that surrounds an angiosperm seed. also has one or more ovaries
list the three types of blood vessels and give the function of each
Arteries- carry blood away from the heart Vein- carry's blood to the heart capillaries- difuses with carbon dioxide and tisseus
When air enters _____, oxygen diffuses across thin capillary walls into the blood
Avelous
what is the difference between xylem and pholem?
Both are vascular tissues. Xylem- carry water up the roots. Phloem- transports nutrients and carbs.
A group of F+ bacteria mixes with a group of F- bacteria and as a result all the bacteria turns to F+, this is called...
Conjugation
The stems of a(an) _____ do not form wood
Herbaceous
Which of the following regarding chromatin is true?
Heterochromatin is condense and euchromatin is less compacted.
In eukaryotes, transcription is associated with...
Histone acetylation and euchromatin.
_____'s contributions to science was the theory of evolution by natural selection
Darwin's
Cloning "Dolly" was considered a scientific breakthrough because...
Different adult cells with mammals can differentiate
In nucleosomes, DNA is wrapped around...
Histones
Mutations in these cause transformations...
Homeotic genes
Structures that have different functions in different species but develop from a common ancestor and are structurally similar are called _____ structures
Homologous
Gene expression is regulated at the level of...
Transcription
When a sequence of DNA is moved to and alternate part of the genome, this is called...
Transposition
When a population is NOT evolving, it is in a situation called _____
Equilibrium
Name and describe two two of the three serious respiratory diseases that can be cause by smoking.
In bronchitis-the bronchi become inflamed and clogged with mucus. Lung cancer- hard to detect, Tobacco smoke paralyzes cilia in the trachea and smoke-laden mucus can become trapped along airways. Nicotine is addictive stimulant that incrases heart rate and blood pressure. Emphysema is the loss of elasticity and the eventual breakdown of lung tissue. You can't get enough oxygen to the body tissues or rid the body of excess carbon dioxide
Compare and contrast kingdom Fungi and Kingdom Plantae
Fungi-are hetrotrophic, unicellular, Eukaryotas, and have a cell wall made of chitin Plantae- Autotroph, unicellular, Eukaryotas, and cells walls made of cellulose
Teeth are extremely important in _____ digestion because they physical break down larger pieces of food into smaller ones
Mechanical
Compare the Micro nucleus and macro nucleus of a paramecium
Micron nucleus- genes are the "reserve cells" that the nucleus come from conjugation Macro nucleus- is when the cell goes through day-to-day activities with the genes.
What are prions?
Misfolded proteins that cause brain disease in animals.
Which process shapes the organism?
Morphogenesis
Because of their long, slender structure, skeletal muscle cells are also called _____
Muscle Fibers
is an allele for a trait has no effect on species' fitness affected by natural selection? explain.
No, because natural selection will only occur in a population if the trait helps a species fitness
Natural selection occurs when organisms survive in their local environment and produce _____
Offspring
How do spore-forming protists such as plasmodium differ from other protists in terms of movement?
Organisms in the Plasmodium genus use a mosquito vector, and insects.
The animals Panthera leo (lion) and _____ tigris (tiger) belong in the same genus
Panthera
the six kingdoms of life include bacteria that have cell walls with peptidoglycan, bacteria the have cell walls without peptidoglycan, protists, fungi, animals, and ______
Plantae
These portions of the genome are nonfunctional nucleotide sequences that are similar to functional genes...
Pseudogenes
most _____ muscles must be directly stimulated by the nervous system to function
Skeletal
What would be the disadvantage of having a heart made of skeletal muscle rather than cardiac muscle?
Skeletal heart would make it really hard to beat
Why does the chance of cancer increase with age?
The longer we live the more mutations we develop.
Which of the following is true about viruses?
Viruses are classified at the cellular level of biological organization.
Which membrane makes up the viral envelope?
The nuclear or plasma membrane of the host cell.
Which about transposons is not true?
They encode sex pili and enable plasmid transfers between bacteria.
A scientist studies bacteria that transfers genes. How does this provide evidence of specialized transduction?
The same gene is always transferred.
Which of the following is a characteristic of all viruses?
They have B) Nucleic acid genome C) Protein capsid
Why is it important to avoid tanning salmons and wear a hat, sunglasses, and protective clothing whenever you spend time outside?
because the rays of the sun can give you skin cancer.
In adults, _____ is found mainly in parts of the body where cushioning is needed
cartilage
_____ is a disease characterized by the loss of elasticity and eventual breakdown of lungs tissue from long-term smoking
emphysema
menstruation does not occur if what happens?
if the egg becomes fertile
the separate bones of a newborn infant's skull grow until they are fused together and connected by _____ joints
immovable
How does the presence of Hemoglobin in the blood increase the efficiency of gas exchange?
it binds with oxygen and diffuses alveolus
what is the primary reproductive organ of males?
penis and testis
