comm 102 exam 4
1970s portrayals of interracial interactions
Bridge of the U.S.S Enterprise a true racial melting pot
hyper coordination
Constant connection, can do so in spare moments anywhere. Relational or expressional uses for purely social reasons -Self expression through usage -Support face to face relationships -Enhancing close ties at expense of weak ties -Texting
asynchronous vs synchronous
Email vs. instant messaging -fundamental difference: fewer verbal and nonverbal cues in communication -Some scholars argue that face-to-face cues are vital to fully connecting with another individual -Emoticons/emoji attempt to counter this problem. However, emoji vary across platform and sentiment misconstrued frequently, even with the same image (Miller et al. 2016) --Lincoln may have been the first person to use an emoticon in 1862
mobile communication: micro effects
*Public vs. private -Mobile phones blur the lines between public and private interaction -Halfaloge -Absent presence *Negative effects -Linked to promiscuity in real life (plus "sexitng") -Negative effects on academic achievement -Distracted driving
media multitasking
-"a person's consumption of more than one item or stream of content at the same time" (Ophir, Nass, Wagner, 2009). -As of 2014: growth of digital video bandwidth
social networking
-#1 use of the internet -Facebook has more than 1 billion users --often used in research because it is so widespread
health communication campaign efforts
-Campaigns used worldwide with mixed results -Some health campaigns produce long-term behavior change; some do not -Fear appeals can increase anxiety -Some campaigns criticized for blaming victims who have been bombarded with ads featuring unhealthy behavior
positive effects of video games
-Education Games for fun and learning --"Serious games": games that have a purpose other than just entertainment --Effective teaching by motivating students and giving instantaneous feedback -Exergames for exercise and health knowledge -Social change
mobile communication: macro effects
-Fundamentally changed how society operates -Changes how we perceive space and time (Campbell & Ling) -Rapid hardware/ software changes creating mini-generation gaps -"Ambient accessibility" -We are always a ring away, constantly adjust plans in the world through our phones, and "check-in" places to know others where we are
takeaways of video game discussion
-GAM-a model that explains how repetitive priming leads to aggression -Debate is ongoing about if video games lead to violence -There are flaws with video game research -Video game addiction-similar to gambling -There are strong cases for both negative (aggression violence, desensitization, -health) and positive effects (learning, social involvement, + health) of video games
Mobile communication and the structural transformation of the democratic process?
-Gergen's notion of "monadic clusters" --Limitations on talking to people that you differ with, talk to people like minded to you, not giving a voice to the other side
positives effects of social networking sites
-Greater well-being correlated with: --More Facebook friends --Positive self-presentation strategies on Facebook --More self-disclosure of feelings online -Enhance social capital-resources available to you from your social network -Bridging capital (weak ties) --Connected to useful services and information -Bonding capital (close ties) --Emotional support -Maintaining capital (old ties) --Physically distant
mobile communication compared to other comm
-In research, mobile is originally understood as a message from one person to another person --Different from household phones in which you are calling a place rather than a person -In research, "mass media" is originally understood as one-to-many (TV, movies, radio, etc.) -Online communication could be either one-to-many (forums, email newsletters) or one-to-one (instant messaging, email) -"Network-based" society (Castells): Interactions with shared interests rather than physical space
Backdrop for research on mobile communication and social capital (building on earlier Internet research)
-Internet paradox-gave people computers to access internet (thought it would be good), people ended up feeling isolated, alienated, depressed --Methodological flaws with this study (if you give someone the internet and tell them to use it, they might not know what to do with it-uses and gratifications model) *Disregarded -since then: social recreation and information exchange
effects on youth culture
-Media-use culture changes so rapidly that siblings are divided by different media-use experiences -Cell phones perfect tool for teen friends to be always available -Among teens, heavy cell-phone users more likely to be also involved in stealing, fighting, alcohol and drug abuse, sexual behavior -Heavy used linked to higher class failure rates, lower test scores, lower GPAs overall
sleep issues because of mobile communication
-Mobile phone usage for playing/surfing/texting was positively associated with insomnia -Media use might make it take longer to fall asleep -Media use might mean less time spent sleeping, thus reducing sleep -Bright light emitted by electronic devices might impact sleep quality
effects on minority viewers (minorities in the media)
-Not as much research in this area -Stereotypical portrayals sometimes impact self-esteem of minority viewers, but not always (mixed results)
what is mobile communication?
-Possibility of mediated social interaction, media consumption, and information exchange while the user is in physical motion --Do not have to use it on the go -May take place through voice, text, picture, video or otherwise -Devices not necessarily used while on the go, but rather that they afford-i.e., make possible-mobility during mediated social connectivity
effects on white viewers (minorities in the media)
-Priming studies --"When Blacks are repeatedly depicted as criminals...Whites are repeatedly primed to think of 'them' as criminals" -Cultivation studies perspective --Whites who heavily view media with stereotyped portrayals of minorities tend to believe those stereotypes
concerns about social media
-Results in media multitasking --Negative effects on efficiency -Social networking and social comparison theory -Internet addiction or addictive potential? --A state characterized by compulsive engagement in rewarding stimuli --Or just habitual process/impulse control (individuals act without thinking of long-term effects and lack self-regulation)
negative effects of social networking sites
-SNS users more disatisfied with their own bodies after viewing profiles of attractive users, social comparison -Fears of privacy intrusions -Older users are afraid burglars will monitor posts to determine when they aren't home -Passive use linked to lower well-being -Active use not significantly linked
uses of mobile communication
-Seek, produce, and distribute information all from their mobile phone -An extension of the self: fashion statement and status symbol -micro/macro-coordination
sexting
-Sexting as an injunctive norm and descriptive norm --Injunctive is what you "should" do in a social context --Descriptive is what people actually do. Sexting is seen as common, even though relatively uncommon -Sexual double standard --Males exerted pressure on girls to send sexts --Sexting for males was seen as a path to increased social status, females are punished even if they are giving into pressure from males. Females who sexted were seen as insecure, attention seeking "sluts"
areas of research for the internet and mobile communication
-Social connection -Psychological well-being -Political/personal expression -Physical health
alone and solitude
-Solitude has benefits --Boosts creativity, provides a space for reflection which in turn enhances intimacy and fosters empathy, formation of self identity. Additionally, adolescents with intermediate levels of solitude were better adjusted --Memories are formed more effectively when experience is alone -Expectations have changed for smartphone era --72% of teens feel the need to respond to texts immediately --80% check their phone every hour
shocking study
-Students asked to sit in a room for 15 minutes -Were given a shock to eliminate the curiosity factor -Willing to pay to avoid the shock -Still shocked themselves rather than sit and think --67% of males --25% of females
health effects of mobile communication
-Text neck-your head weighs 27 pounds, as you angle it more and more there's pressure on your neck, negative long term effects, could limit range of motion as we age -Increased illness due to germs -Car crashes due to texting and driving --Cognitive dissonance --People do it because they think they have to respond immediately -Texting and walking -Sleep issues
sexual minority stereotypes
-The number of portrayals of sexual minorities has increased since the 90s, but those portrayals are often stereotypical, one-dimensional, comedic, and asexual (with the exception of certain genres like reality, eg. The Real World) -Sexual minorities also tend to have different roles than their heterosexual counterparts, i.e. supporting rather than lead -Many LGBTQ characters are also played by straight actors and actresses -Media portrayals have been shown to be important in terms of knowledge gain for those who do not encounter the community in real life
effects on social coordination "micro-coordination"
-Time and space no longer rule planning and logistics -Softening of the schedule -ongoing refinement -Mobile communications allow more planning for spontaneous face-to-face encounters -mobile workers
microblogging
-Tweeting as interactive microblogging -140 character limits -Motivations (as of 2007) --Information seeking --Information sharing --Communicating with friends -News -Political proximity and news
what do we do when we log in?
-US users spend 53.4 billion minutes on Facebook per month -social networking 22.5% -online games-9.8% -email-7.6% -portals-4.5% -videos/movies-4.4% -info searches-4% -IM-3.3%
Star Trek
-Uhura (Nichelle Nichols) one of first Black's women on TV not shown as maid or nanny -Captain Kirk (William SHatner) and Uhura had first interracial kiss on TV in 1968 -One year before 1968, black and white people were not legally allowed to get married, could go to jail --One year later, interracial people were shown kissing -Actress wanted to quit Star Trek because of the kiss, but fan (MLK) told her that it was so important to show the world as a leader that this was okay -Fans responded surprisingly positively
general aggression model
-Used to explain how violent video games affect levels of aggression in players -Players are primed in the short term by violent game play, which creates elevated levels of aggression -Repeated priming makes these mental pathways more easily accessible -Eventually these become hardwired and create a more aggressive personality -desensitization
gender stereotypes
-Women have historically been underrepresented in films, and have been portrayed differently than men -Women are sexualized even in G-rated films, and overwhelmingly only young women are shown -Children are influenced by gender stereotypes, but research has shown that negative effects can be mitigated by parents (Smith & Granados, 2009) -Stereotypes can influence our choice of occupations, thinness ideal can lead to eating disorders, etc.
private use in public space (mobile communication)
-forced eavesdropping -Listening to "halfalogue" more distracting that hearing both sides of a conversation -absent presence -Users of mobile technology for information more likely to engage in conversation with strangers --If you use your phone for something like news, you can talk to others about it -Users of mobile technology for relational purposes less likely to talk to strangers (there is a uses and gratifications lesson in here!) --People near you do not want to hear about your relationship -Social media and location-based services-new narratives about connecting with places and people in public --Connecting through space --Creating meaning for space --Bringing social networks into public space
bechdel test
-in order for a piece of media to pass, show two women talking to each other about something besides a man --A lot of media does not pass this test because it doesn't have two women or they're talking about men
results from mobile communication research
-information exchange: positively linked to civic and political -relational use: not significantly linked to civic and political (in this study) -recreational use: positively linked to civic and political, but this mostly applies to older users
internet in the workplace
-intranet -really simple sindication (RSS) -Blogs allow communication between CEOs and employees -Telecommuting enables working from home --Employees can balance job/home life demands --Some telecommuters can feel lonely, isolated and stressed --Can be effective cost-saving measure -Leisurely web surfing for pleasure may provide needed break and ultimately increase worker productivity
implications for solitude
-need for new conceptualization and measurement --Oxford English Dictionary: "state of being or living alone" --Storr's (1988) "Solitude: A return to the self" ---Being alone ---Lacking close relationships ---Not getting married/cohabitating --Burger's (1995) Preference for Solitude Scale ---I enjoy being around people ---I like to vacation in places where there are few people around... ---If I were to take a several-hour plane trip, I would like to sit next to someone who was pleasant to talk with
media effects of racial, ethnic, and gender stereotyping
-priming studies -cultivation studies
three domains of representation research
-quantity (head count) -quality (role comparison) -effects
factors affecting adoption rates (7)
-self-efficacy -status incentives -relative advantage -compatibility -complexity -trialability -observability
four types of messages shown to increase self-protective behavior
-severity -vulnerability -response efficacy -self-efficacy
Mobile Communication Habits: The case of texting while driving
-theory of planned behavior -habit-frequency PLUS automaticity -texting is something... *I do automatically *I do without having to consciously remember *I do without thinking *I start doing before I realize I'm doing it *I have no need to think about doing *I do without meaning to do it
flaws with violent video game research
1-Aggression is not clearly defined 2-Only one game is played in most studies for a fixed amount of time 3-The causal relationship between aggression in real life and in playing video games is not straightforward 4-Many studies are conducted with small, non random, non-representative samples *Aggressive players may seek out video games to satisfy their needs
blogs: 5 uses of traditional sites (Blogger, WordPress)
1-document life events 2-commentary and opinions 3-express deeply felt emotions 4-articulate ideas through writing 5-form and maintain community forums *Microblogging focuses on interactivity, engagement, and conversations, similar to SNS -One of the biggest trends now-Twitter *format can be written, video, or audio based
main uses of social networking (5)
1-keep up with friends (ambiguous term) 2-network with friends and family 3-collect information 4-relieve stress 5-record daily events *But also research is a moving target -College students are most often the participants of research methods
three gratifying fantasies of mobile communication
1-you never have to be alone 2-you are always being heard 3-we can put our attention where we want it to be
uses and gratifications for video game players
A way of explaining why people from diverse backgrounds play specific games and what satisfaction they get from playing -Gender-boys are more likely to pay -Age-the average gamer is 37 years old and has been playing for 12 years -Personality-several examples, but an interesting one is that aggressive personalities play violent video games in a more violent way that non-aggressive personalities
video game addiction
Games who play heavily have lower real world social support and higher rates of depression, stress, and anxiety
quality (role comparison)
How characters of various demographic groups are portrayed (social role, occupation, demeanor, intelligence, etc.) -Type of role: leading role vs. supporting roles -Job types (blue collar vs. white collar) prestidge -Violence and aggressiveness (perpetrators, victims)
effects (representation domain)
How quantity and quality of portrayals affect the way audiences think about and act toward people of various demographic groups (beliefs, interpersonal interactions, political preferences, media preferences, etc.)
micro coordination
Logistics, scheduling, and ongoing refinement of face-to-face interaction
halfaloge
Research shows that hearing half a conversation (one person's side) is more distracting than a full one (both sides)
Mobile communication has led to a transformation in these three aspects of micro-coordination.
Scheduling Logistics Ongoing Refinement
what we do on the internet
Social networks and blogs (22.5%) Games (9.8%) Email (7.6%) Other
gender schema theory
a cognitive structure that represents knowledge about a concept or type of stimulus, including its attributes and the relations among those attributes (Fiske & Taylor, 1991)
goldilocks effect
because of technology we can keep people at a distance thats not too far or not too close (like for example texting instead of talking)
mobile
can be used while on the go
absent presence
cell phone users physically present, but minds are engaged elsewhere
ongoing refinement
change plans or make them up on the fly (directly, while moving about)
bonding
close relationships providing emotional support -Strengthen relationship with someone you already know, in your network *a way to accrue social capital
intranet
company links computers within workplace *internet in the workplace
illusion of companionship without the demands of friendship
company on your own demands so you can be heard without having to listen to someone else
theory of planned behavior
conscious predictors of attitudes, norms, and perceived behavioral control
really simple syndication (RSS)
employees receive corporation information *internet in the workplace
other aspects of social capital
in addition to bridging, bonding, and maintained (previous lecture), other aspects of social capital include Civic Engagement, Political Involvement, Trust in others, and life satisfaction...the idea is that these facilitate constructive resources through mutual involvement with others
desensitization
long-term players are already desensitized to violence
mobile workers
lower boundaries between work and home may cause stress
additional stereotypes
mental health stereotypes -Barely addressed, even in the textbook -"The last taboo" topic to be addressed -Negative stigma still very much present today --People with disabilities are often portrayed as incompetent, dangerous, lazy, underserving, etc. -Consequences --People less likely to seek help --Excluded from employment, social or educational opportunities --Self-stigma
forced eavesdropping
most people do not like having to hear a person's phone conversations
self-stigma
negative response from public leads to lower self-esteem
social recreation
negatively linked to civic engagement, trust in others, and life satisfaction *revisiting early findings for the internet
problem with conversation
people cant edit or monitor the comversation on their own time its immediate so you dont have time to think
information exchange
positively linked to civic engagement, trust in others, and life satisfaction *revisiting early findings for the internet
Effects on social relationships
pre-smartphone mobile individual accessibility- people rather than places become more accessible heightened accessibility for core ties- people you're close with expect you to answer right away concerns about social insularity- connect more with people whose numbers you have (bonding ties) - and shut out the others new rhythms and rituals - people became much more accessible smartphone mobile perpetual contact- people always accessible, changes relationships text messages symbolic of friendship/intimacy- expectation that you would communicate with each other via text- people became more comfortable texting than talking diversified channels (apps and social media) → more diversified connections - ex: tinder gives you access to diverse people
vulnerability
show ease of contracting disease
portable
such as laptops, carried place to place and then used
ambient accessibility
talk to anyone, anytime, anywhere *macro effect of communication
fixed
tethered to a location (desktop)
adoption
the process by which an individual begins to attempt and use an innovation -An individual begins to use/believe/change behavioral perspective to use the new innovation (idea, practice, object)
media as conveyers of social information (television-currently)
*Blacks: -Prime-time television characters 14-17% Black in a society with 12-13% Black population -Typical Blacks are middle-class professional males in thirties, least aggressive characters, dress more provocatively --Genre-specific differences -Blacks overrepresented, Whites underrepresented as juvenile offenders -Not often good numbers for other racial groups *Hispanics -17% of population, 2-6% of TV characters -Portrayed as less intelligent, less articulate, and lazier -Portrayed on news as crime perpetrators more frequently than whites *Asian-Americans -About 5% of population, 1-3% of TV characters -Usually portrayed in important professional jobs *Native American characters -<.5%, population 1%
research findings: food
*advertisements: -Food commercials may have positive or negative effects depending on nutritional value of food advertised -Food ads strongly related to childhood obesity, yet parental eating habits much more influential -Ads for nutritional items with health benefits increases audience awareness-eg: 1980s ads for Kellogg's All-Bran stressed anticancer benefits for high fiber and low fat *television -American "thin standard" for women on TV linked to global viewer eating disorders
trialabiity
*factor affecting adoption rates -The degree to which an innovation can be --Experimented with on a limited basis --And if necessary discarded without undue costs -Can people "try out" the innovation first, or must they commit to it all at once? --If the latter, people will be far more cautious about adopting it -If you have to completely commit to it without knowing what it is like, we are more hesitant
compatibility
*factor affecting adoption rates -The degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with the existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters --If potential adopters feel as though they have to become very different people to adopt the innovation, they will be more resistant to it -Will adopt product faster if it goes along with your needs/personality
relative advantage
*factor affecting adoption rates -The degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the thing it is replacing --If people do not perceive the innovation better than the status quo, the innovation will not spread quickly, if at all -Ex-Internet vs dishwasher, relative advantage of the internet was much higher, can always wash dishes by hand
complexity
*factor affecting adoption rates -The degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand or use -The more difficult it is, the slower the adoption process -The friendlier the product is, the faster you will adopt it
self-efficacy
*factors affecting adoption rates -Can I do it? --Belief in one's own abilities with respect to the probability that s/he will succeed in adopting and performing an innovation -Ex-a company has to decide if they as a business are capable of taking on a new business practice (is this something we could do?) -If you believe, set your mind to it, you'll adopt it faster
observability
*factors influencing adoption rates -The degree to which an innovation's results are visible and measurable --We are more likely to adopt innovation if we have seen positive results of the product --Explains why Weight Watchers is so popular-show obvious results in their advertisements -If the results are not visible, the innovation will spread more slowly
twitter effects (for organizations)
*has measurable effects -Research suggests companies/organizations active on Twitter develop better relationships with users -Depends on approach-"when organizations use Twitter as a two-way communication tool, the results can lead to the generation of quality organization-public relationships" (Saffer et. al, 2013) -Ex: Wendy's: someone doubts their product, respond to them --Two-way street of communication --Positive for Wendys-shows they answer their customers and address their concerns
social capital
*resources accrued from individuals in a network -These are SOME of the ways people accrue social capital: bridging, bonding, maintaining
early adopters
-13.5% of all people Visionaries who are respected for their willingness to try new innovations -Also very on top of technology -Opinion leaders, well connected in the local community -Your friends who always have the newest technologies, can tell pros and cons of products to friends -Innovators deeply within tech communities, early adapters in local communities -Motivated to preserve respect -Want people to come to them with questions, always want new knowledge, exposure to mass media changes -Seek greater knowledge of innovations -New way of managing companies count as innovation -Greater exposure to mass media channels
minority portrayals in entertainment (advertising)
-1940s-1960s-Blacks appeared in only 3% of national magazine ads; all were well-known entertainers, famous athletes, or unknowns in servant roles --You had to be Louis Armstrong, Muhammad Ali, or someone that is well known to be a model for an ad -1970s-1980s-presence deteriorated; one study showed only 2% presence, another <1% in ads -Studies showed White magazine readers did not respond negatively to black models --Disconnect for what people want to see -1990s-portrayal of characters of color in TV ads greatly increases to over represent population percentages by more than double --Possibly because more of an explosion of black addresses and actors on tv (more accepted in society?) -Native Americans and disabled continue to be avoided
evolution of the internet
-1960s-developed to share computer time for military and academic researchers --Access to computers was difficult and scarce at the beginnning -ARPA-developed by Advanced Research Projects, Agency of Defense Department (ARPAnet), scientific advancement branch of defense, interested in exchanging network in decentralized way -1971-E-mail developed for users to communicate -Late 1980s-World Wide Web developed by Tim Berners-Lee for engineers to communicate on the Web via HTML-HyperText Markup Language -First Web browsers-Mosaic, Netscape *Internet=infrastructure connecting internet and cable --Wifi: turn it on, connected to the internet --No central hub, everything connected, internet=a network -World Wide Web is like a file system --WWW and internet are not the same thing -We mostly access internet through world wide web, now more ways
innovators
-2.5% of all people -Technology enthusiasts -Require a shorter adoption period than any other group -Risk takers who are willing to try an unproven product -Venturesome, mobile, daring -Financial resources to absorb unprofitable innovations -Tend to be wealthy-buy new technology, absorb failures -Tend to form cliques or reference groups that exist outside a local community -Tend to already be a part of the technology community or work for a technology company, allows them to take risks with technologies they adopt -People who want to find out if the product is good/not good so they can tell others about it -Daring in their technology choices
early majority
-34% of all people -Pragmatists (practical) -Prefer to deliberate before making a decision -Careful consumers who tend to avoid risk -Rely on recommendations from others who have experience with the product (innovators and early adopters) -People who compare lots of different products, might leave computer on older version until new one is error proof -They legitimize an innovation
late majority
-34% of all people -Skeptic --Conservative and cautious --Even after others embrace the innovation -Wait until the rest of the community has adopted it first --REALLY want to make sure there are no risks -May adopt the innovation, though unwillingly --Peer pressure may be a motivator --Economic necessity
media as conveyers of social information (films-currently)
-80% White lead characters --Lala Land had 2 white lead actors saving jazz, only black character is John Legend -19% Black lead characters -1% Hispanic lead characters -Other non-Black racial minorities rarely seen in US motion pictures
research findings: tobacco
-83% of studies found causal link between media exposure and smoking initiation (Nunez-Smith et al., 2010) --This is just for advertising -The higher the ad recognition, the more likely one is to smoke -Tobacco companies spend more advertising dollars at point of purchase than all other advertising outlets combined -Smoking ads have been banned for broadcast on TV -Fictional media also matters --Smoking and drinking common on TV programs --20% of television episodes depict characters who smoke --Studies show portrayals of characters who smoke and drink present even in G-rated movies and 75% of animated Disney classics -Exposure to smoking in media increases likelihood of smoking --Dan Cin, Stoolmiller and Sargent, 2012 ---National representative survey of 6522 US adolescents ---Found higher exposure to movie smoking is associated with less time to trying cigarettes for the first time --Several recent studies (Adachi-Mejia et al., 2009; Dalton et al. 2009; Sargent et al., 2007) reveal a longitudinal association between exposure to depictions of smoking in movies and the likelihood of becoming an established smoker (ie-having smoked more than 100 cigarettes)
recent findings: alcohol
-Alcohol use and abuse in young people higher than any other drug including cigarettes and marijuana -Alcohol use by movie characters associated with early-onset drinking among 10-14 year olds -Studies focus on causal relationships between media and 1-start of adolescent drinking and 2-increased consumption/drunk driving -Likelihood of adolescent drinking of beer or liquor directly related to TV alcohol ad exposure (causation) -Again, fictional media also matters --Smoking and drinking common in music, on TV programs, film, even kid's shows/films --Exposure to drinking in media makes adolescents more likely to suffer a later drinking problem -Country music-connection between trucks and drinking
implementation
-An individual (or other decision-making unit) -Puts an innovation into use -Take the innovation you decided to adopt and start to use it
diffusions of innovations
-Because innovations (new ideas, technologies, practices, etc.) do not succeed on their own -Rely on many factors including communication -Innovations rely on the process of communication, new ideas advertised through communication
minority portrayals in entertainment (motion pictures)
-Blacks and other minorities historically were cast only in roles specifically requiring a minority character --Only times you'd see black people on TV was as a maid (Gone with the Wind-first actress to win award) -1990s films broke new ground-Blacks cast in starring roles and non stereotypical roles that could be played by any actor *Halle Berry-The Flintstones *Will Smith-starring role in Wild Wild West *Denzel Washington-starring role in The Pelican Brief *Morgan Freeman-US president in Deep Impact *Danny Glover-US president in disaster film 2012
zune vs. ipod
-Comparison of unpopular vs. popular product -Zune commercial does not advertise product besides showing a bird coming back to life -iPod is much more successful, first commercial wasn't necessarily better -First commercial shows man dancing in different settings->now: use silhouettes in their commercials -Objectively-neither commercial is very good -iPod didn't just win based on advertising
effects of internet use (overview)
-Computer-Mediated Communication --2010-107 trillion emails sent --2015-over 205 billion emails sent PER DAY --Message asynchronous --Acknowledged to be less fulfilling than face-to-face contact --Verbal and nonverbal cues greatly reduced
characteristics of social networking sites (SNS)
-Construct public profile within a bounded system -Connect with other users, such as "friends" and "followers" -View and traverse connections (and connections and connections) -Become increasingly media rich-photos, videos, live streaming
future research must address (internet effects)
-Continually changing technologies (eg-Tinder, Snapchat) -The "internet of things" (we don't think of them as internet devices, but they connect to the internet in new ways --Connecting physical devices, vehicles, buildings, etc. to the ---Internet and gauging their status via sensors Impact of this on users, behaviors, data collection, privacy
internet addiction versus problematic internet use
-Currently no approved medical diagnosis for internet addiction -Internet dependency considered a form of deficient impulse control by some researchers; an addiction by others -Heavy users unaware of their behavior -Users with lower social skills prefer computer-mediated communication and therefore use Internet more often -Bored individuals more likely to overuse Internet to problematic levels
media richness theory
-Describes medium's capability to communicate a lot of information quickly and with low potential for error -About amount of communication cues included, based on amount of communication cues needed --Eg-face to face includes verbal words, tone, facial expression, body language --Phone includes words and tone, not expression or body language --Higher potential for miscommunication on phone
the net
-Easily the most pervasive form of media communication -"Old Media" post exclusive content on websites (radio shows) -Television shows display Twitter hashtags on screen for viewers to communicate --Audiences do free advertising for them and engage with other fans -"Google" and "Facebook" have become verbs -Approximately 3.2 billion users worldwide -Smart phones access Internet Internet increasingly connected to everyday technologies --"Internet of things"
recap of internet effects
-Effects of the Internet diverse and use-dependent -Paradox of the internet-can be both isolating and useful for socialization -Social capital-bridging, bonding, maintaining -Researchers still working on defining problematic Internet behavior -SMS, Twitter, other technologies have specific effects, both positive and negative --Difficult to study "the internet" in model climate --Many areas of future research
social network sites
-Expand our connections with others -What they are: --Socializing with friends expanded through social network sites (SNS) *Facebook and twitter
effects of social networking sites (on well being)
-First-year undergraduates use Facebook more than upperclassmen -Heavy use connected to lower self-esteem and academic performance -Honest self-presentation results in greater happiness from SNS use --Always see people's best selves on facebook
twitter effects (for politics)
-High interaction on Twitter (answering questions, responding to tweets) associated with more positive perception of candidate than low interaction --Decreased users issue-related thoughts and recognition of issues -Twitter largely used for politics by those already interested in politics --Twitter does not necessarily lead to political engagement; opinion leadership does
research findings: drugs
-Illegal drugs --Drug use (other than marijuana use) rare --Ill effects of drug use portrayed frequently; drug addicts usually portrayed as evil --Viewing film/TV can increase individual odds of trying or using marijuana ---Pop music has similar effect --Minimal impact on other types of drug behaviors -Prescription drugs --1997-FDA approved mass media advertising of Rx drugs directly to the public, including magazines and television --Advertisements influenced many people's behaviors *6% discuss advertised drug with doctor *30% of those were prescribed the drug *11.5% were prescribed the drug although doctor did not believe it would help them
recap of innovations
-Innovations don't diffuse on their own -Process relies on communication in many forms -Interpersonal comm from innovators (opinion leaders) particular significant -Diffusion occurs in an S-curve; slow adoption until critical mass is reached, then takes off -Seven different factors affect adoption rates for tech/ideas -Can measure both diffusion itself and how likely people are to be innovators, laggards, or in between
health and the internet
-Internet is a mix when it comes to health -Searches for health-related info among most common uses of the Internet -People who seek Internet information on illness more likely to use information to formulate questions for their physicians during visits -Validity and quality of information is not checked by users and is sometimes substandard
laggards
-Last 16% of people (assuming everyone adopts technology, which isn't true) -Adopt only when certain the technology will not fail (100% certain), or when forced to change -Innovation-decision process is lengthy -Tied to the past -Reluctant to try new things -Don't see a need to change -Suspicious of innovations -Need a lot of information before decision phase -Limited resources --May be laggards because they do not have the money to buy new technology, only buy when old is outdated -When adopted, the innovation has become outdated
priming studies on media effects of racial, ethnic, and gender stereotyping
-Majority audiences blame minority crime on personal disposition, majority crime on unfortunate situation -Long-term exposure to stereotypical portrayals of Blacks has been shown to result in subtle discriminatory thoughts among Whites
davies et al. (2002): Stereotype in commercials
-Male and female participants watched either a commercial with stereotypical or counter-stereotypical portrayals of women -Completed an "unrelated" task to check for stereotype activation, then an "unrelated" math test -Female participants who saw the stereotypical commercial performed worse on the math test than female participants who saw the counter-stereotypical commercial -Men and women who saw the counter-stereotypical commercial performed equally well on the math test -Stereotype activation occurred for both males and females --Mediated the effect of commercial exposure on math performance -Stereotype threat When stereotypes are active, you recognize things -Low bar=more activation -Men and women saw stereotype activation with commercials -Men performed about the same on math performance -No math difference before men and women, but after watching stereotypical commercial, women did much worse -Not simple math questions, y-axis=% correct -Stereotype activation mediated the effect of commercial exposure on math performance-for women -Stereotype threat leads to stereotype activation which is what decreases math performance -Causal relationship
disney and pixar-animated gender
-Male characters outnumber females 199:83 -Females performed more in-home labor -Males performed much wider range of out-of-home jobs -Males held more positions of power than women -Characters aligned with femininity (passive, dependent, emotional) and masculinity (aggressive, independent, unromantic, unemotional) -While we are growing up, we are shown these roles and accept them -Research found on stereotypes in Disney's classic animated films -Disney animation not an innocent art form; nothing accidental or serendipitous occurs in animation as each second of action is rendered in 24 different still frames -Peter Pan-women shown doing labor, men leading ceremony, shows "red men" (Indians in it)
media effects on health
-Media effects health, we take it for granted -How media has negative effects on health -Thank You For Smoking movie -Smoking Drinking Drug use Food behaviors
media as conveyers of social information (advertising-currently)
-Men portrayed as professionals, promote non domestic items -1990s Black breakthroughs --Tyra Banks on 1996 Swimsuit Edition (with white model), 1997 appeared solo --2007-Beyoncé on Swimsuit Edition cover -Asian and Hispanic models rarely appear in magazines --Asian Americans, 2%-appear passive in nature or tech-savvy --Hispanics, 1%-more likely to appear provocative and sexualized
health news
-Most people pay most attention to public health issues -Public also pays attention to health policy stories/ specific disease stories -News coverage of smoking dangers significantly impacts numbers of people who quit -Framing of health stories can impact policy makers and affect public health policy --Frame smoking as an individual problem (not much attention), frame as a problem that affects the whole public (more attention) -Intense scrutiny can cause officials to act -Greatest impact on public policy at local level when experts in agreement and media supports efforts of interest groups
personality factors and uses gratifications for SNS users
-Multitaskers more likely to use SNSs and stay on longer -Studies suggest SNS users do not seek out new people but focus on established relationships -Collect info, reduce stress, record daily events, social networking --Build social capital
the internet paradox
-One study found that although Internet is used mainly for communication, heavier users found to be more lonely and isolated -Subsequent studies show extroverted users benefit from online socialization -Easily used to maintain contact with family and friends -These results can be confusing-what part of the internet are we referring to?
1960s Portrayals of Interracial Interactions-The Star Trek Breakthrough
-Original Star Trek original series was a HUGE deal because it was a racial melting pot -Bridge of the U.S.S. Enterprise is a true racial melting pot *Mr. Sulu-Asian navigator *Ensign Chekov-Russian navigator *Scotty-Scottish engineer *Mr. Spock-alien first officer *Captain Kirk-Caucasian captain "Bones" McCoy-*Caucasian doctor *Lieutenant Uhura-Black female communications officer
Salem & Anderson (2013): stereotypes in games
-Participants played a violent game with Arab terrorists, a violent game with Russian terrorists, or a nonviolent golf game -Participants then drew "typical" Arab and Caucasian males -Coders then coded the content of the drawings --Affect (positive, neutral, negative) --Weapon or no weapon --Participants who played a violent video game were more likely to draw a "typical" Arab with negative affect and a weapon --No effect for "typical" Caucasian drawings' affect; no weapons
character role comparisons (1970s)
-Prominence: black men in TV minor roles and bit parts, fewer leading and supporting roles -Crime/violence: blacks and native americans portrayed as killers rather than victims -Social status: characters of color usually in blue-collar/service jobs, but percentage depicted in professional/white-collar jobs exceeded numbers in society -Disability-75% portrayed with abnormal or deviant personality traits; half were victimized during film -Interracial interactions: only 13% of Black-White interactions on TV shown as friendly/respectful
research findings
-Television and film --Portrayals of sexual activity increasingly abundant but few references made to safe sex practices or commitments-exposure linked to having sex earlier in life --Violent, sexually explicit films influenced college-age males to trivialize rape and show more sexually callous attitudes toward women after viewing
minority portrayals in entertainment (television)
-Television presents an inaccurate of racial makeup of American population (quantity) -1970s assessments of race proportions in media characters revealed portrayals of minorities fell far below real levels -Percentage of black characters increased slightly throughout the 1970s, but remained below actual population percentage --Most black characters were white actos using black face for makeup -Presence of other racial minorities was practically nonexistent
status incentives
-The degree to which one desires to be the first to have and use an innovation -Latest hairstyles, new fashions, new technologies If you want to be a trendsetter, want to be the first -If you don't need social aspect of a new phone, you'll wait to buy it -Depends what you think you'll get out of the product, how it would help social or cultural status
recap of representations in media
-Three domains of representation research --Quantity (headcount), quality (role comparison), effects -Portrayals of marginalized groups increasing -Over/under-representation of various groups -Stereotypical depictions affect beliefs about stigmatized groups -Gender schema theory & gender stereotyping -Short-term (priming) and long-term (cultivation) effects of consuming stereotypical depictions
why mobile matters-how it is distinctive
-Unprecedented adoption rates -implications for how users relate to space -Size matters --Cell phone is small --First cell phone-1973, 2.5 pounds (that's why it didn't catch on) -Cost matters --Cost of phone itself, service, infrastructure --Cell phone towers, cheaper than what they replaced
recap of media effects on health
-Various negative impacts from media exposure to tobacco, alcohol, prescription drugs, and food ads -Some positive impacts -Health news and communication campaigns can ameliorate effects --But not always effective -Risk learning models and stereotype priming models aim to persuade people against negative behaviors and towards positive ones --Rely on severity, vulnerability, response efficacy, and self-efficacy message --Link positive traits with desired behavior
measuring innovators
-We can track how quickly an innovation spreads and where it reaches critical mass -But how can we tell what kind of adopter a person is? --Ask them! -We can look at the 7 factors to see how likely innovations are to spread but we can also measure innovators themselves -Beneficial for market use
cultivation studies on media effects of racial, ethnic, and gender stereotyping
-Whites who are heavy TV viewers more prone to stereotype Blacks as lower socioeconomically due to lack of initiative, not lack of opportunity -White heavy TV viewers cultivated stereotypical attitudes toward Hispanics; real-world contact lessened effects
gender stereotyping
-gender schema theory -Schema about a gender can affect the way people (especially children) process information in the real world and from the world of mass media -1980s-1990s, women portray 31.5% of all prime-time TV characters --Portrayed as younger than males --Characters are wives and mothers, not workers or professionals of importance -Women usually portrayed in films as young, hypersexual, scantily clas sex objects -More recent studies show women represent about 40% of characters on prime time TV -Women make up half of the population, representation going up to meet reality -Males more likely to be shown in positions of power and authority -Women represent 45-49% of people seen in commercials but more likely to be sexualized -When characters shown in counter-stereotypical ways, gender effects are diminished -Children most vulnerable to learning about sex role stereotypes, but negative effected mitigated by parental/caregiver supervision --Their minds are still forming
bridging
-many weak friendship ties (common in US) *a way to accrue social capital
effects of internet use (specific)
-the internet paradox -social capital -internet addiction versus problematic internet use -internet in the workplace -Facebook provides greatest social gains for users with low self-esteem-online connections easier to manage than in person for shy individuals
3 main user motivations (Twitter, blogs)
1-Information source-large group of followers (good ratio) 2-Information seeker-users log on but do not post (bad ratio, follow more people) 3-friends-connections with people actually known
decision
An individual (or other decision-making unit) -Engages in activities that lead to a choice to adopt -Or reject the innovation -Must decide whether or not you want to adopt technology -Do you go out and buy an iPod or stick with Walkman
persuasion
An individual (or other decision-making unit) -Forms a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the innovation -Take information you got and form an attitude toward the innovation -Can be positive or negative
knowledge
An individual (or other decision-making unit) -Is exposed to an innovation's existence -And gains some understanding of how it functions -Corporate, economic practice must learn about innovation/understand how it functions -Individual level or decision-making unit (corporate, economic, practice)
confirmation
An individual (or other decision-making unit) -Seeks reinforcement of an innovation-decision already made -Or reverses a previous decision to adopt or reject the innovation --If exposed to conflicting messages about the innovation -You decide if you're happy with your decision or you decide you don't like it and return it
quantity (head count)
How many characters of various demographic groups (race, sex, gender, orientation, disability, religion, etc.) -compare the percentage of minorities in the media to the percentage of minorities in USA society -Overrepresentation and underrepresentation -First studies in the 1970s Underrepresentation -Present day: Overrepresentation (Blacks, Whites) Underrepresentation (Hispanics, Asians)
adopter categories
Innovators (2.5%) Early Adopters (13.5%) Early Majority (34%) Late Majority (34%) Laggards (16%)
diffusion and adoption processes
Knowledge Persuasion Decision Implementation Confirmation
risk learning and stereotype priming models
Risk-learning models relate new information about health risks and the behaviors that minimize those risks -Stereotype priming model uses salient preexisting social stereotypes about people who do or do not behave as advocated --Cigarette smokers presented showing negative stereotypical traits like stained teeth --Nonsmokers shown with positive stereotypical traits, ie-enjoying good health
innovation adoption and s-curve
Rogers (1995) -"At first only a few individuals adopt the new idea, then great numbers of individuals accept the innovation, and finally the rate of adoption slackens"
innovation
an idea, practice, or object (eg-product) perceived as new At one point in time, the TV and internet were innovations (new object, idea, project)
broadcast/advertising
company->user or news outlet->user (advertising is only a part)
message asynchronous
sent and received at convenience of users
self efficacy
show effectiveness of protective behavior
response efficacy
show how protective behaviors reduce or cure disease
severity
show severe consequences of behavior
s-curve
slow adoption at the beginning, critical mass -after critical period, not going down -Starts with an innovator -Spreads slowly at first, then picks up speed -When the number of adopters reaches a critical mass (5-15%) --The process takes off and is probably reversible -As more and more people talk about the innovation, it has a life of its own --Opinion leaders talking to their friends leads to a big increase -Eventually it reaches a saturation level-where virtually everyone who is going to adopt the innovation has done so -Most of these innovations follow an S-curve
diffusion
the process by which an innovation is communicated and spreads -Through certain channels, over time, among the members of a social system (happens among social systems)
interpersonal
user->user (feedback from people, convince others around them that this product is a good one)
maintained
users stay connected with old social networks despite lack of physical connection *a way to accrue social capital