comm 3100 exam 4
Humor and credibility
-Coupled with the finding that humor tends to increase liking, it seems that the use of humor is beneficial in all dimensions of credibility except expertise -Some studies have shown that humor: -Enhances perceptions of trustworthiness (Speck, 1987) -Diminishes perceptions of competence or expertise (Chang & Gruner, 1981) -Increases a communicator's perceived social attractiveness (Murnstein & Burst, 1985) -Enhances communication competence in communicative situations
Inoculation
-How to prevent people from being persuaded by the other argument -Presents an opposing argument before it is given -However: it is presented weaker, just like an immunization -Two parts: threat: warn that a challenging argument is coming. refutational preemption: give weak argument and show how it can be refuted
Iconicity
-Icons: resemble what they represent -Images can be selective: they can accentuate or ignore topics; like news framing -Images can violate reality: images can be distorted or manipulated (they can make something look real, even though it's not) -Kool aid man -Good: Icons can allow for easy recall of brand message -Bad: Icons often employ stereotypes
Indexicality
-Images are used to document events -Important to question the validity/indexicality of images -Good: Necessary for recording events, history, etc. -Bad: People may take index quality for granted without considering image
Syntactic indeterminacy
-Images cannot show causal LINK -Image meaning is up to receiver; however, images are often manipulated to make receiver feel a certain way when they see them
Power of images
-Images often elicit an emotional reaction -May not be a logical response -Images are not always truth and can be misleading -Always consider the credibility of images -Images can easily be manipulated
Sequential request compliance tactics: categories
-Reciprocity: door in the face, pre giving, that's not all -Commitment/Consistency: foot in the door, foot in the mouth, low ball procedure, bait and switch
Visual communication
-Refers to the ways in which the images that humans interact with either intentionally or unintentionally create meaning in their lives -Cultural salience: some visuals help to frame or build culture. Any image that holds meaning can be culturally salient
Mere exposure
-Zajonc(1968) -We "acquire tastes"; the more we see something the more we like it -The impact of repetition depends on how personally relevant the message is to the audience -Personally relevant messages lead to central processing - stronger arguments lead to more persuasion because arguments must last over time
Social influence: why people agree to requests (Cialdini)
1. Commitment: foot in the door (get them to say yes), lowball, and bait and switch 2. Reciprocity: door in the face (compromise), that's not all (giving to get) 3. Liking: ingratiation (sucking up) 4. Social proof: bandwagon (doing what others do), norms (doing what we perceive to be the "right" thing) 5. Scarcity: psychological reactance 6. Authority: merely the appearance of authority increases compliance
Information manipulation theory
1. May not provide the quantity of information that we assume they will 2. Might not tell us the quality of information that we expect 3. May give vague or ambiguous responses: manner violations 4. May give messages that are not relevant: relationship violations
Color as persuasion
-Color has symbolic meaning -At birth, girls are often wrapped in pink blankets, boys in blue -Patriotic colors -Executives wear "power "colors -Fans identify with sports teams through color -Jobs are categorized as "white collar," "blue collar," "green collar," "pink collar," etc.
Social networking sites
-2009 57% of users were a fan or friend of a business/ product -2010 69% were
Subliminal messaging types
-75% of Americans believe that subliminal messages are common in advertising, and that they work (Rogers & Seiler, 1994) -Why? -James Vicary's alleged movie theater experiment in 1957 -Wilson Brian Keys claims of planted images in advertising -Subliminals in Disney movies and other media -Sub - below the threshold -Limen - human consciousness -The message is processed without conscious awareness -You find what you are looking for -Four main types -Embedding, subaudible, subliminal priming, backward masking
"Bait and switch" and lowballing
-A low level commitment is requested, but a higher level commitment is actually required -This is based on commitment and responsibility -Works pretty well especially with lower issue knowledge targets -Ex. you went to buy the car, you said yes to the $16,000 price... and they came back and told you there were "extra charges" and now the price is $18,899. -You agree to it, because you are psychologically committed to buying that car, you feel obligated to keep your promise, work only when the same person makes both requests
Foot in the door
-A small request is made to which the target says yes -A larger request is made soon thereafter -Once target has agree to a request, their attitude may change -The first request must be: unambiguously smaller than the second request, must induce compliance, must be of sufficient magnitude to commit the individual to future compliance -The second request cannot be so large that few would comply -The second request cannot be so trivial that all people would comply -If the second request is trivial, there is not need to use FITD -Works because people feel committed -Any time you can make a target feel committed, you're improving your chances of complianc
Persuasion appraisal
-A.k.a. rhetorical criticism -Systematic investigation of a rhetorical artifact -First: goal is to evaluate a particular instance of persuasion. -Second: assumes there is a different author of persuasion attempt than the person that is appraising it
Ex post
-After the fact - you appraise the message after it has occurred -Artifact - rhetorical criticism field usually calls the analyzed message or message "artifacts
Characteristics of a successful liar
-High in Machiavellianism - essentially, a person that is manipulative -High Self monitor -Low in Comm App -High in Comm Competence -Friendly -Males tend to control their nonverbals more -Females tend to become more involved in communication
Patriotism
-Almost all Americans report being at least somewhat patriotic -Successful appeals can be subtle/fleeting -Collective patriotic feelings can ebb and flow -Genuineness is critical
Other appeals and combination of appeals
-Almost any human drive or emotion can serve as the basis for a motivational appeal (e.g., pride, youth, shame) -Advantages in combining appeals -May add up (guilt and pity together are better than either one alone) -Must "go together"
What is a motivational appeal?
-An attempt to jump-start an individual's drive to do something -A visualization of some desire and a method for satisfying it -External inducements, often of an emotional nature, that are designed to increase an individual's drive to undertake some course of action. -Typically intending to alter people's moods, feelings, or emotions as a means of persuasion. -Intrinsic or self-motivation, is an internal drive to do something. -Extrinsic- prompted by some outside stimulus, such as a promise of reward or a threat of punishment.
Exigence
-An urgent need; something must be done/said/both -This is most obvious in damage control situations, but occurs in any situation to some level
Anchor and contrast
-Anchoring: giving an individual on adaptation level to be considered as a standard. The value menu, MSRP. How much should stuff cost? -Contrast: after the adaptation level is established, something new is added which displaces from the standard, creating the contrast effect -These principles work when the target of influence is: not aware that s/he is being influenced (by this means). not knowledgeable about the area in question. "How much would you pay for...?" How much should stuff cost?
Relevance of theory
-Applying a theory helps us to understand why or how a persuasive attempt failed or was successful -Selecting a theory: choose the theory that is most appropriate for the persuasive attempt, not just one that you are familiar with -Research the theory heavily
Color and behavior
-Attitude-behavior -Food coloring is used to make many foods more appealing; cheese, meat, produce -Food color signifies freshness, quality, taste -Color-aggression link -Some evidence suggests that wearing black uniforms correlates with aggressive behavior -Color and traffic tickets -Despite conventional wisdom, red cars are not more prone to traffic tickets
Seeing red
-Attitudinal associations with the color red -The "red pen" effect in grading papers -Red is associated with danger, hazards, warnings -Heightens affective arousal -A red cross symbolizes a hospital -Associated with passion and love - Valentine's Day
Explicit conclusions
-Audience is told what the conclusion drawn should be -Preferred by people, unless they are thoughtful about the product -Direct message, simple, straightforward, but could cause resentment -"Hard sell"
Implicit conclusions
-Audience must draw the conclusion on their own -Preferred when centrally processing & high product involvement -Preferred when people have questions about the sender of the persuasive messages credibility -Subtle -People more persuaded by implicit when it is personally relevant
Door in the face
-Based on reciprocation -Instead of reciprocating to a "free sample" we reciprocate to a concession -When we say "no" and the solicitor concedes and retreats to a smaller request, we feel we have won something. if you, the solicitor, can concede, we can concede too -The original request must be rejected by the target -The original request should be large enough so that its rejection will be perceived by the target person as irrelevant for making self-attribution -The original request should not evoke resentment, anger, or hostility -The second request must be clearly smaller than the first -There should be no delay in the timing by which the two requests are made -Same person makes both requests -Self-presentation: don't want negative perception after first rejection -Social responsibility: comply because of internal standards -Guilt based account
Why do people lie?
-Benefit others -Affiliate: lying to people to get them to do something with you, etc. -Avoid invasion of privacy -Avoid conflict -Appear better -Protect self -Benefit self -Harm other
Mere exposure and repetition
-Benefits: 1. better opportunity to learn message arguments 2. receivers tend to like familiar materials -Drawback: 1. saturation point or wear-out threshold; depends on novelty of the stimulus and other factors
How many arguments should you use?
-Depends on ELM -Central processing: one really good argument is enough -Peripheral processing: prefer more arguments, even if weak. Many arguments may be seen as a cue
Warmth appeals
-Designed to elicit nostalgic sentiments, and a sense of belonging or familiarity. -Common in advertising, especially for products and services related to the home and family. -Studies show warmth appeals do produce temporary affective changes in receivers. -To be effective, warmth appeals must be perceived as genuine or sincere
Appeals and physiology
-Different appeals elicit different physiological responses caused by reactions in nervous systems -Appetitive appeal - an appeal that is attractive -i.e. humor -Aversive appeal - an appeal that is unattractive i.e. fear, guilt, etc.
Four factor model
-Does not focus on behaviors people do when lying, but more on why people behave differently 1. Arousal: people telling lies display more signs of arousal and anxiety (which may lead to certain "tells") 2. Attempted Control: liars try to control their behaviors more (i.e. they might control emotional reactions on face, but show it somewhere else on their body) 3. Felt Emotions: may feel more negative emotions 4. Cognitive Effort: it require more work to lie - liars might take longer to respond, pause more when speaking, and give fewer specifics
Message
-Evaluate explicit and implicit elements -Evaluate the argument -Consider framing: messages are framed just like a picture -This is the perspective that is being communicated -What to include or exclude
Priming
-Flashing a word or image repeatedly on a computer screen (for 16 miliseconds) -Has been shown to alter opinions and behaviors -Limitations -Laboratory studies -No distractions -Effects faded quickly
Aroma
-Fragrances and scented product sales exceed $17 bill in the U.S. annually -Cologne -Perfume -Why do we wear cologne or perfume? -Everyone does it -Smelling good increases your attractiveness
Types of lies
-Prepared lies -More difficult to detect -Seem more credible -Less emotional arousal -Spontaneous lies: easier to detect -Longer lies are more difficult to tell than shorter ones -Personally relevant lies are easier to tell
Sex
-It must work; it's become the norm -Over time more graphic and targeting younger viewers -Most effective on sensation seekers -Limitations -Potential for distraction -Limited to social settings -Objectification of women and, more recently, men as well
Humorous appeals
-Jokes themselves don't persuade, humor assists persuasion by: 1.Capture attention -Breaks through the media clutter 2.Serve as a distraction -Encourages peripheral processing: quick commitment 3.Increase liking for the persuader Persuader seems more friendly and establishes a rapport -Related humor has an advantage over unrelated humor -The receiver doesn't have to take a mental detour to "get" the joke -Humor has been shown to function as an effective form of social proof -Use of "laugh tracks" -Self-disparaging humor vs other-directed humor -Self-disparaging less effective than other-directed (Becker, 2012)
Detecting lies
-Looking for eye contact is not effective -People tend to report different detection techniques than they actually use -Often rely on intuition -Some people are better at it than others
Color and emotion
-We often equate colors with moods -seeing red -green with envy -feeling blue -Ambient colors can affect moods ,emotions -Primary colors: bold, lively, energetic -Pastels: calming, relaxing -Warm colors; red, yellow, orange -Cool colors; blue, green, purple
Cinema and persuasion
-Mass exposure -Many people see films made in the United States -What does this do to culture? -Product Placement -Movies are told in narrative -Transportation Theory (Green & Brock) -Those that are "transported" into a story are more likely to reflect the story's ideals -May depend on empathy/identification with characters -Exporting values - How does this affect what other countries believe about the U.S.? -Promoting popular culture -Modeling behavior -Cultivation theory -Perpetuating Stereotypes
Ingratiation
-May be the most common type of motivational appeal used in face-to-face encounters. -An effective compliance-gaining strategy. -Transparent attempts are less effective -Overall assessment of the research to date suggest that ingratiation works well -It increases liking -Flattery produces liking even when the compliments are false -It creates perceptions of similarity -It can work through social labeling -(You sure are in a good mood today!) - changes the target's self-concept -Food servers earned higher tips when they used ingratiation
Purpose
-May have immediate or long term purpose (or both) -Ex: many car commercials are targeted to both people looking to buy a car and people who just bought their car -Post-purchase cognitive dissonance: buyer's remorse -People experience buyer's remorse after big purchases -Want to have positive reviews and word of mouth - won't get that if people are regretting their purchase
Outcome
-More likely to analyze a successful persuasive attempt than an unsuccessful attempt -How to measure success: -Reaching a large audience -Long term impact -Audience testimony
Audience refutation
-Most audiences will think critically about a message, and not immediately accept it just because -How did this message get the audience to accept it?
Fear appeals
-Most studied -Effective if done correctly -There are social and ethical implications related to their use. -The recommendations accompanying the appeal are perceived as highly efficacious by receivers. (capable of achieving the desired result) -The appeal triggers danger control; focuses on the solution instead of the problem -Receivers perceive they are highly vulnerable to the negative consequences -Specific recommendations for avoiding the negative consequences are provided -The solution step follows, rather than precedes, the fear appeal.
Combinations
-Motivational appeals can also be used in combination. -Threats of punishment are often coupled with promises of reward. (Good cop/bad cop) -Guilt is commonly combined with pity.
Traditions of communication
-ORAL: cultural messages verbally transmitted through generations. Primary orality: culture with no knowledge of technology beyond spoken word. Secondary orality: verbal communication is sustained through other technologies, ex. phone/internet -WRITTEN: hieroglyphics, cave paintings -PRINT: started with printing press, but earlier print messages exist (woodcuts, etc.) -ELECTRONIC: radio, tv, etc. -DIGITAL: allows us to use one device to access any of these traditions (a smartphone helps us speak, write, print, etc.)
Compliance tactics
-Occurs when one behaves in a particular way because another is encouraging him/her -There are many types that can be used to increase the likelihood we will agree with another's request -Sequential compliance: tactics that require more than one step (usually two) to be effective
Hegemony
-One group dominates another -False consciousness: individuals are unknowingly exploited by a social system that they support -Out of control bodies: representation of lower class as being out. of control and dangerous
Inoculation strategies
-One sided argument: also called "supportive strategies"-only give one side of argument. Good for your argument are work but aren't best in many cases -Two sided non-refutational argument: present both sides to argument without a counterargument to opposing view. Not very effective -Two sided refutational argument: present both sides to argument and refutes other position. Most effective, uses inoculation strategy
Traditional vs. new media
-Persuasion is different in traditional than new -Traditional: we are passive. Simply consume the persuasive attempt: Much focus on building our ethos, logos, pathos. Narrative Paradigm Theory - as long as a story has fidelity (matches our beliefs or experiences), and coherence (makes sense), we are likely to be persuaded, regardless of truthfulness -New: we are active. We have agency. Ability to create change. Persuasion is two way street. You are encouraged to post comments to articles and videos, seek out more sources, etc.
Evaluation
-Pragmatic evaluation - was this message effective in both short and long term? -Ethical evaluation - was this message ethical? Was it truthful and accurate? -Implications - are there any recommendations for future persuasive attempts?
Situation
-Situation: the collective set of social norms and understandings before persuasion starts -Also called the rhetorical situation. Made of three parts: exigence, audience, constraints
Background music
-Slower music keeps you shopping longer -Potentially buying more -Slow music at a restaurant -Took longer to eat -Ordered more drinks -Background music is processed via the peripheral route
Appeals to pity or guilt
-Some charities and philanthropic organizations rely on appeals to pity -Evidence suggests the use of pity is effective, and perhaps essential, for securing monetary donations, but not donations of time -How receivers react to appeals to help others hinges on the perceived controllability of the others' problem or circumstance -They can't help themselves so I'll help them
Interpersonal deception
-Takes into account both the sender and receiver of lies: accounts for changes in behavior due to suspicion -Strategic attempts to seem honest: -Manipulate messages to dissociate, convey uncertainty or vagueness, or withhold information -Strategically control their behavior -Manage their image -Nonstrategic - those "tells"
Sequential request tactic
-Target: the person at whom the attempt to gain compliance is directed -Agent: the individual who makes the influence attempt -Stages: First (initial) request: helps to increase likelihood of target acquiescing to the second request by eliciting a particular reaction. Second (target) request: the request on which the influence agent actually hopes to gain compliance
Counter-factual reasoning
-What if the persuader had taken a different approach (including no persuasion at all)? -What if the persuader used the same logo or slogan with a different ad or approach? Etc.
Mass interpersonal components
-The ability of an individual to change attitudes and behaviors on a mass scale -PERSUASIVE EXPERIENCE: goal of social network sites is identity management; persuading others and ourselves about what our identity is -AUTOMATED STRUCTURE: can create a Facebook event, etc. and it is as easy as clicking a button to join persuasive process -SOCIAL DISTRIBUTION: easy to contact many friends, some level of peer pressure to commit to specific identity and image -RAPID CYCLE: you know all those Facebook games that constantly send messages to people and are all over the newsfeed?Rapid, find it easily, quick -HUGE SOCIAL GRAPH: reach millions through a network -MEASURED IMPACT: how much time is spent on a screen, how many clicks, etc.
Audience
-There may be more than one audience for a message. -Must consider each audience's needs, and understand that any one persuasive message may reach any or all audiences
Logical vs. emotional appeals
-They are not opposites -People tend to perceive messages they agree with as being more logical or rational in nature. -People tend to perceive messages they disagree with as being more emotional in nature. -A study by Langer et al.(1978) reveals it is not so much the use of reason, but the appearance of reasoning, that engenders compliance.
Credibility
-Think beyond yourself: have to understand why their audience finds them credible -There can be many persuasive messages that may not seem credible to you, but are highly credible to the audience
Elements of persuasive appraisal
-This process takes many hours and a lot of work 1. Must closely analyze the message to understand audience, situation, and effectiveness As we've learned, each of these topics is fairly complex 2. The persuasive theory part is a completely different research process - you need to look up the original book or article on the theory, some related research on persuasion, etc. 3. Applying the theory to the persuasive attempt is its own analysis
Can a visual argue?
-Those who say that a visual CANNOT argue state: 1. Images are naturally ambiguous and it is difficult to determine their intention or meaning 2. An argument must be propositional - an argument will propose something that must be done -Can an image, which is inherently non-linguistic, propose something? 3. An argument must be a two-part sequence (i.e. claim and data). Visuals are presented as a whole, and therefore are not two parts -Those who say that it CAN make an argument: -The previous argument is too narrow - visuals can be provided as data and have been for years -However, images are often used to argue (or fight) rather than reasoned deliberation -Images and language often work together
Primacy effects
-Topic is interesting to the receiver -Materials are familiar -Non-experiental products: based on informational processing -When messages are presented one after another, with time delay b/w decision, primacy effect occurs
Recency effects
-Topic is of low interest to receiver -Materials are unfamiliar -Experiential processing: based on sensory processing -When one message is given, time delay occurs, and then the second message is given, recency effect occurs
Forewarning
-Warn the audience in advance -Can be an effective way to make the audience resistant to the message -Inoculation refute and exposes the audience to a weakened version -Makes people aware of a possible counter-attitudinal message -Freedman&Sears(1965) found that when warned, the more time given before hearing the message, people were more resistant -Petty&Cacioppo(1977) found that when warned and given time before hearing a message, people can think of an list more counter arguments and are more resistant to persuasion -To overcome forwarding: stress your lack of bias, establish goodwill, as a speaker consider both sides, ask for open-mindedness from your audience
That's not all
-Works because the approach activates the norm of reciprocity. They're giving you something extra. Targets believe that they are in the right place at the right time. Scarcity as well. Uses anchoring and contrast -Similar to DITF -Different because you do not wait to be rejected before you change the offer -Has been seen to be more persuasive than DITF
Reciprocity
-Works best when person perceives s/he is getting special treatment or a special concession, ex. free samples -Pregiving tactic: you are given some gift before you complete requested behavior, ex. getting a 5 dollar bill with a survey in the mail
Why should you do persuasive appraisal?
1. You can ask questions that you normally wouldn't ask about a persuasive attempt 2. Increases your awareness of persuasive attempts and strategies 3. Deepen your understanding of theory Be objective - don't just use a theory because you are familiar with it 4. Conducting ex post appraisal will develop ex ante skills
Mere exposure theory
Argues that people respond favorably to familiar stimuli and suggests that repeated exposure to a message should facilitate persuasion
Ex ante
Before the event: trying to figure out what will be successful in an upcoming situation
Why compliance tactics work
Cialdini(2001) determined that 6 key principles of influence underlie most influence attempts: commitment, reciprocity, liking, social proof, scarcity, authority
Three deception strategies
Distortion, omissions, falsification
Constraints
Every situation is subject to norms and audience goals
One-sided vs. two-sided
Factors: Education: little education (one-sided works); more education (two-sided) Initial attitude: agree (one-sided); disagree (two-sided)
Audience differentiation
How do unintended audiences respond?
Picture superiority
Images are more easily recognized and recalled than words
Cultural studies theory
Media are powerful tools of the elite and serve to keep the elite in control
Drawbacks to new media
Privacy: even what we believe to be private is likely not
Anticlimax
Strong arguments at the beginning
Climax
Strong arguments at the end
Pyramidal arguments
Strong arguments in the middle (worst choice)
Defensive purpose
To try to protect and keep a client
