COMM 3253 - Persuasion Principles MIDTERM

Reactance is motivated by the individual's basic need for interdependence and affiliation with similar others

False

A desire for facts, evidence, proof, and strong arguments is typically associated with:

high need for cognition

Consequences of psychological reactance:

- a threatened freedom can increase in attractiveness - the target may attempt to perform the threatened behaviors - the target may derogate or feel hostility toward the source

When compared with persuasion that occurs through the central route, persuasion due to peripheral -route processing is:

- less resistant to counter-argumentation - less enduring - less likely to be incorporated into the receivers value-belief system

Festinger's 4th hypothesis gets to the heart of his theory by asserting that there exists a tendency to make one's cognition and one's behavior __________ with one another.

All of the above & below (Harmonious, Balanced, Consistent, Congruent)

What is meant by the following statement? "Education level" is a proxy measure for "intelligence," and what does it imply in terms of assessing people's intelligence?

As with before, the education level is not necessarily indicative of intelligence. Many famous inventors have not had high education levels but are obviously incredibly intelligent. However, when attempting to persuade a crowd, it would be safe to assume a high intelligence approach would work better at Oxford than at a high school.

Concerning Maslow's hierarchy of needs:

Basic physical needs will generally be protected before safety, esteem, and belonging needs.

Why do people often trivialize or downplay certain of their own behaviors that would appear to be inconsistent with their beliefs?

Because acknowledging a discrepancy creates further dissonance and self-awareness of its existence.

Why do people often selectively ignore evidence and information that contradicts their position?

Because any contradictions found would introduce a cognitive dissonance with their behavior

Festinger further expands on his 3rd hypothesis by stating that the stronger the attraction on the recipient toward association with the communicator, the greater will be the impact of the communication on cognition. This is illustrated by the fact that recipients tend to trust in:

Communicators perceived as impartial

Festinger's second hypothesis states that the impact of direct experience will exert pressure on a person's cognitions to:

Conform to that experience

Festinger expands on his 4th hypothesis by stating that: Given a dissonance between an item of cognition and an item of behavior, there will be a tendency to change the:

Either the behavior to make it consonant with the cognition or the cognition to make it consonant with the behavior.

Better educated people tend to be more critical of unsupported messages and harder to charm or fool, thus, they are always less persuadable than less educated people.

False

Crano asserts that it is the potential objective importance of an issue, not its subjective significance that drives attitude‑consistent action.

False

Despite any criticism, many argue that the ELM is a particularly strong model of persuasion because it stipulates that message processing is only possible by one of two methods (i.e., the central or peripheral route).

False

High-anxiety targets are persuaded by anxiety-producing messages because they are easily distracted by their anxiety, and thus less likely to scrutinize weak arguments.

False

If a person considers an attitude object important (e.g., hurricane relief efforts, or good arithmetic) than that attitude object must have hedonic consequences for that person.

False

Less educated people are easily confused by complex messages, thus, they are always more persuadable than better educated people.

False

One potential weakness of the ELM is that it assumes the amount and type of topic-relevant thinking varies by receiver

False

Reactance theory predicts that the more explicit the intent of a persuasive message (i.e., the more it is spelled out in clear, straightforward language), the more receptive (open) the subject will be to its influence.

False

Since highly vested attitudes will always be experienced as important, attitudes involving important objects will always be perceived as highly vested.

False

Studies indicate that throughout the human life cycle, reactance peaks briefly during adolescence, then gradually declines until it reaches its lowest level during old age.

False

The theory of psychological reactance predicts that when an individual's perceived freedom is threatened by a proscribed attitude or behavior, the individual will experience a motivating pressure toward conforming with (i.e., agreeing with) the position advocated in the proscriptive message.

False

When we engage in "peripheral route" processing, we will likely reflect on issue-relevant concerns associated with the topic of the persuasive message.

False

Within the ELM, if the target is known to be involved in the issues, then quantity and quality of arguments are of equal importance.

False

Within the ELM, if the target is known to be involved in the issues, then the quantity of arguments advocating a position is more important than anything else.

False

Within the ELM, if the target is known to be uninvolved in the issues, then quantity and quality of arguments are of equal importance.

False

Within the ELM, if the target is known to be uninvolved in the issues, then the quality of arguments advocating a position is more important than the quantity of arguments.

False

Miller (2015) suggest that boomerang effects risk the prospect of having the source of a persuasive message (such as a parent or a school teacher) violate the Hippocratic oath, which says:

First do no harm

Which situation below would tend to be the most psychologically comfortable (i.e., balanced)?

Hooty dislikes cats, and he dislikes his neighbor, Carl, who owns a several cats. (For something to be balanced it requires an even number of negatives)

"Diligence is a good thing, but taking it easy is much more— restful." Using cognitive dissonance theory, explain the motivation behind Mark Twain's reasoning.

Ignoring dissonance or refusing to acknowledge its existence puts ones mind at ease whereas constantly seeking out dissonance is a painful and involved introspective process that causes one to constantly face their own failings.

_______ is a temporal consideration involving the amount of time between an action compelled by an attitude and the consequences of that action.

Immediacy

According to Festinger, there are three possible relations which can exist between items of behavior and items of cognition, namely, consonance, dissonance and:

Irrelevance

What is meant by the following statement? "Sex is a proxy measure for "gender," and what does it imply in terms of assessing people's self-reported gender?

Proxies are not always directly true but can be useful for assumption. It is more safe to assume that people who are women by sex will exhibit female characteristics and vice versa, but self-assessed gender identity can result in this not being the case. It is an individual level.

Which is the most economical (in terms of costs and benefits) form of power?

Referent

Festinger's third hypothesis states that the strength of the impact of a communication to make other cognitions conform to that communication, will vary with the:

Relationship between the communicator and the communication

____________ refers to the perceived presence, prominence, or conspicuousness of the effects of an attitude on the holder of that attitude, not just its accessibility.

Salience

Mary is trying to persuade her three friends, Molly, Anna, and Sam to change political parties. While Molly has always believed that she is superior to other people, Anna has low self-esteem. Sam's self-esteem is somewhere in between—neither too strong nor too weak. All else being equal, and based on this information alone, who should Mary have the easiest time persuading?

Sam (He is in the middle and therefore the easiest to persuade)

5 Components of Vested Interest (VI)

Stake, Salience, Certainty, Immediacy, and Self-Efficacy

Festinger expands on his 3rd hypothesis by stating that the greater the "trustworthiness" of a communicator, the greater will be the impact of their communication on:

The recipient's relevant cognitions

Although highly vested attitudes will always be experienced as ego‑involving, ego‑involved attitudes will not always be perceived as highly vested.

True

Persuaders should use anxiety-producing messages to appeal to low-anxiety targets, because low-anxiety targets will scrutinize an anxiety-producing message to find out why it makes them feel anxious, and they'll look for information useful in lowering their anxiety to its normal level.

True

Research has found that behaviors are almost always consistent with attitudes.

True

Studies indicate reactance is tri-modal throughout the human life cycle, i.e., briefly peaking during three life phases, with the highest level occurring during adolescence.

True

The ELM's focus on argument strength can be a problem for the model because it is not always clear in every case precisely what should constitute a weak versus a strong argument

True

When we engage in "central route" processing, we attend very carefully to the persuasive message and carefully examine the arguments contained within the message.

True

Within the ELM, if the target is known to be involved in the issues, then the quality of arguments advocating a position is more important than the quantity of arguments.

True

Why do people often selectively focus on evidence and information that supports their position?

We as humans have a need for consonance which supporting information to what we already believe provides for us.

Festinger's first hypothesis states that there are two major sources of cognition, namely:

a person's own experience, and communication from other people

Miller (2015) assert ''trait reactance'' (i.e., reactance as a personality attribute) refers to:

a unique personality characteristic people exhibit across different situations.

Dillard asserts that __________ evolved because it enabled successful interaction with the environment.

affective processing

Reactance in response to certain messages may often be followed by:

all of the above and below: - increase in the attractiveness of the threatened freedom - source derogation (dissing the source) - boomerang effect (doing the opposite of what is advocated)

Dillard notes that accurate evaluations and judgments of environmental changes are not simple tasks. There is the basic problem of how we are to respond, and essentially, we have only two behavioral options (and thus, only two corresponding motivations) which are:

approach or withdrawal

Vested interest defines A-B-C as:

attitude behavior consistency

Brehm's theory of psychological reactance asserts that, with regard to certain limited and specifiable areas of behavior, people have a distinct and strong preference to perceive themselves as masters of their own fate. This motivational force produces a need for:

autonomy and self-determination

Which is the most costly and problematical (in terms of costs and benefits) form of power?

coercive

Festinger's 5th hypothesis states that if a consonance exists there will be resistance to changes in behavior or _________ which would introduce__________.

cognition; dissonance

To deal with anticipated social interactions, we rely primarily on:

cognitions

According to the text and lecture, _______ & ______ make up the two primary dimensions of source credibility.

competence & character

Fill in the blank with the exact word Festinger used for the question above about how Festinger's 4th hypothesis gets to the heart of his theory by asserting that there exists a tendency to make one's cognition and one's behavior ______________ with one another.

consonant (also acceptable: agree, jibe, cohere)

Explicit commands that frequently use forceful adverbs such as ''you ought,'' ''you must,'' or ''you should,'' tell a person clearly and directly what to do, therefore, such highly explicit, directive language is often viewed as:

controlling and may contribute to a sense of threatened freedom

Fabian, a world-famous brain surgeon, is highly regarded for her skill and precision in the operating room, yet she knows nothing about bull fighting or basketball. This best illustrates that:

credibility is situational or contextual

If you appeal to people's sense of sympathy, reciprocity, empathy, then you are appealing to ___________ tendencies.

feminine

If you appeal to people's sense of tradition, and their values about following rules and playing it by the book, etc., then you are appealing to ___________ tendencies.

dogmatic

You could argue that _______ & ______ have the greatest effect on referent power.

dynamism & sociability

To deal with unanticipated social interactions, we rely primarily on:

emotions

According to James Dillard, the primary function of affect is to

guide behavior in the present

Vested interest refers to the extent to which an attitude object is __________ for the attitude holder.

hedonically relevant

A desire to conform and a particularly strong and socially sensitive need to be accepted by others, along with an appreciation for social proof are attributes associated with:

high self-monitors

Festinger refers to communication as being _______ and its effects on ________:

indirect experience; cognition

Prior to meeting a person, ___________ is your perception of that person based on their reputation, on their status and on what you've heard of them, if anything.

initial credibility

If you appeal to people's sense of reason and logic, and their need for evidence, and sound judgment, etc., then you are appealing to their ___________ tendencies.

intellectual

Affect

is a valenced state arising from the effects of instrumental reinforcing stimuli.

Cognition

is best represented as (=) or (doesn't =) rather than (+) or (-)

Peripheral processing is a tendency especially typical of people with:

low need for cognition

The tendencies to exhibit individualism, practicality, and high degree of attitude-behavior consistency are attributes associated with:

low self-monitors

On the other hand, according to the lecture, ____________may make the target more vulnerable to suggestion, and thus in some cases, more willing to settle for a less compelling argument.

lower self-esteem

Psychological reactance is conceived as a(an) _______ directed toward the reestablishment of perceived freedom and free behaviors.

motivational state

Dillard maintains the most important environment, in terms of the evolution of human beings, has been:

our social environment

Dillard also maintains the nature of our emotional behaviors has evolved in the presence and service of

our social interaction

The term, "proscribed" means _______, whereas, the term "prescribed" means _______.

prohibited; advocated

When engaged in central‑route processing, an individual's motivation to elaborate is such that

receivers will tend to focus more on their evaluations of issue-relevant concerns

The reading and lecture noted how psychological reactance theory predicts that the more directive and explicit a persuasive message is perceived to be, the more likely it is to be:

rejected

In central-route processing, receivers often tend to use decision rules

requiring careful information processing to determine message acceptance or rejection

According to Crano, among the five components of vested interest, ________ is based on how actively conscious one is in thinking about a particular attitude object.

salience

According to Miller (2015), a persuasive message followed by a restoration such as,"The choice is yours. It is up to you," can serve to restore the receiver's:

sense of autonomy and perceived freedom

A retail sales clerk reads a book entitled, "Smile Your Way To Success." Applying this technique to selling would involve which dimension of credibility?

sociability

One of Dillard's major assumptions is that, for better or worse, human beings ____________________ their affective states

strategically manage

How you feel at the end of the transaction based on what occurred during the transaction creates:

terminal credibility

This kind of credibility functions to produce initial credibility for the next time you interact.

terminal credibility

According to the ELM, the primary impact of persuasive communication depends upon

the amount of issue-relevant thinking about an issue the individual will do.

Brehm hypothesized that the strength of psychological reactance is greatest when:

the importance of the free behaviors to an individual is high

Dillard maintains that our tonic (or baseline) state as a physical organism is determined by:

the resources available to us (e.g., a nourished and rested body) at the time an action is required TIP: Remember the gas tank analogy

When engaged in central‑route processing, an individual's motivation to elaborate is such that:

thinking about the persuasive message typically will be guided by focusing on argument strength.

This kind of credibility fluctuates during the conversation or presentation from higher to lower than initial, from reaction and reevaluation based on their performance and your expectations.

transactional credibility

If you appeal to people's desire for vividness, and stimulating images, color, and sound, etc., then you are appealing to their ___________ tendencies.

youthful