Comm Arts 100 Final

Hasty generalization

A fallacy in which a faulty conclusion is reached because of inadequate evidence. (ex: college dropouts alwauys make excellenc ebusines leaders. Mark Zuckerberg, Bill Gates, and Steve jobs all dropped out and went on to create powerful companies)

Red herring

A fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion (ex: you claim the death penalty is an ineffective way to deter crime, but what about the victims of the crimes?)

Bandwagon

A fallacy which assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable (ex: everyone is getting the new smart phone this weekend)

Attitude

A frame of mind in favor of or opposed to a person, policy, belief, institution, etc.

Repetition

reiteration of the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive clauses or sentences

Why is it so easy to lie with statistics? What three questions should you ask to judge the reliability of statistics?

statistics can be easily manipulated and distorted ex: a. The cheetah, clocked at 70 mph, is the fastest animal in the world b. the pronghorn antelope, clocked at 61 mph, is the fastest animal in the world (cheetah seems faster but can only run that fast for short distances while antelope can run that fast for longer periods) Are the statistics representative? Are the statiscal measures used correctly? Are the statistics from a reliable source?

Direct quotation

testimony that is presented word for word

Denotative meaning

the literal or dictionary meaning of a word or phrase

Connotative meaning

the meaning suggested by the associations or emotions triggered by a word or phrase

Mental dialogue with the audience

the mental give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech

Ethos • Logos • Pathos

the name used by Aristotle for what modern sutdents of communication refer to as credibility the name used by Aristotle for the logical apeal of speaker. The two major elements of logos are evidence and reasoning the name used by Artistotle for what modern students of communication refer to as emotional appeal

Burden of proof

the obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a change from current policy is necessary

Rhythm

the pattern of sound in a speech created by the choice and arrangement of words

Evidence

Supporting materials used to prove or disprove something

Target audience

the portion of the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade

Persuasion

the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions

Thesaurus

a book of synonyms

Comparative advantages order

a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which each main point explains why a speaker's solution to a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions

Paraphrase

to restate in other words

Identify three methods you can use to generate emotional appeal in your speeches

use emotional language, develop vivid examples, speak with sincerity and conviction

What are five tips for using examples in your speeches?

use examples to clarify your ideas use examples to reinforce your ideas use examples to personalize your ideas makes your examples vivd and richly textured practice delivery to enhance your extended examples

What are four criteria for using language effectively in your speeches?

use language accurateyl, use familiar words, choose concrete words, eliminate clutter

What are four tips for using evidence effectively in a persuasive speech?

use specific evidence use novel evidence use evidence from credible sources make clear the point of your evidence

What are six tips for using statistics in your speeches?

use statistics to quantify your ideas use statistics sparingly indentify the source of your statistics explain your statistics round off complicated statistics use visual aids to clarify statistical trends

How can you get information about an audience?

using a questionnaire with fixed-alternative, scale, and open-end questions each have their own advantages/disadvantages so it's good to use all three

Stereotyping

creating an oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually by assuming that all members of the group are alike

Clutter

discourse that takes many more words than are necessary to express an idea

Abstract words

words that refer to ideas or concepts

Concrete words

words that refer to tangible objects

What are the three basic issues you must deal with when discussing a question of policy?

need, plan, practicality

Statistics

numerical data

Why is speaking to persuade more challenging than speaking to inform?

objective is more ambitious than informative, and audience analysis/adaptation is harder

Open-ended questions

questions that allow respondents to answer however they want

Fixed-alternative questions

questions that offer a fixed choice between two or more alternatives

Scale questions

questions that require responses at fixed intervals along a scale of answers

Testimony • Expert testimony • Peer testimony

quotations or paraphrases used to support a point testimony from people who are recognized experts in their fields testimony from ordinary people with firsthand experience or insight on a topic

What are four tips for using testimony in your speeches?

quote or paraphrase accurately use testimony from qualfiied sources use testimony from unbiased sources identify the people you quote or paraphrase

Quoting out of context

quoting a statement in such a way as to distort its meaning by removing the statement from the words and phrases surrounding it

Causal reasoning • Analogical reasoning

reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second

What methods can you use to adapt your speech to your audience before the speech?

(1) assess how your audience is likely to respond to what you say in your speech (2) adjust what you say to make it as clear, appropriate, and convincing as possible

What methods can you use to adapt your speech to your audience during the speech?

(1) find another way to present visual aids (2) modify introduction to address other speeches (3) condense speech (4) look out for audience feedback

What are the five demographic traits of audiences discussed in this chapter?

Age Religion Racial, Ethnic, and Cultural background Gender and sexual orientation Group membership (americans very group-oriented)

Monroe's motivated sequence

Attention (gain attention of audience, using previous methods) Need (demonstrate that there is a need for change; there is an existing problem that needs a solution) Satisfaction (offer and explain a plan to satisfy the need) Visualization (use imagery to show audience how they will benefit from the policy; show better conditions that would result from the policy) Action (call for action from the audience) ***Must have these IN ADDITION to need, plan, practicality

Audience-centeredness

Keeping the audience foremost in mind during every step of the speech planning and presentation process

Alliteration

Repetition of initial consonant sounds

Supporting materials. What are the three major kinds of supporting materials?

The materials used to support a speaker's ideas. The three major kinds of supporting materials are examples, statistics, and testimony.

Plan

The second basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: If there is a problem with current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem?

Practicality

The third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: Will the speaker's plan solve the problem? Will it create new and more serious problems?

Why must a public speaker be audience-centered?

To gain a desired response from listeners

False cause

a fallacy in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second (ex: the sun rises when a rooster calls)

Ad hominem

a fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute (ex: the head of the commerce commission has a number of interesting economic proposals, but lets not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family)

Either-or

a fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist (ex: the government must either raise taxes or eliminate services for the poor)

Appeal to novelty

a fallacy which assumes that something new is automatically better than something old

Appeal to tradition

a fallacy which assumes that something old is automatically better than something new

Slippery slope

a fallacy which assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented (ex: everyone texting and being on social media means its only a matter of time before people forget how to complete full sentences and the whole english language is gone)

Problem-cause-solution order

a method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies a problem, the second main point analyzes the causes of the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem

Problem-solution order

a method of speech organization in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point presents a solution to the problem

Speech to gain passive agreement • Speech to gain immediate action

a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audeince that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audeince to take action in support of the policy a persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy

Question of fact • Question of value • Question of policy

a question about the truth of falsity of an assertion a question about the worth, rightness, morality, etc. of an idea or action a question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken

Example • Brief example • Extended example • Hypothetical example

a specific case used to illustrate or represent a gorup of people, ideas, conditions, experiences, etc. a specific case reffered to in passing to illustrate a point a story, narrative, or anecdote developed at some length to illustrate a point an example that describes an imaginary or fictitious situation

Commemorative speech

a speech that pays tribute to a person, a group of people, an institution, or an idea

Creating common ground

a technique in which a speaker connects himself or herself with the values, attitudes, or experiences of the audience

Cliché

a trite or overused expression

Invalid analogy

an analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike (ex: employees are like nails. Just as nails must be hit on th ehead to get them to work, so must employees)

Fallacy

an error in reasoning

Simile

an explicit comparison, introduced with the word "like" or "as," between things that are essentially different yet have something in common

Metaphor

an implicit comparison, not introduced with the word "like" or "as", between two things that are essentially different yet have something in common

Demographic audience analysis

audience analysis that focuses on demographic factors such as age, gender, religion, sexual orientation, group membership, and racial, ethnic, or cultural background

Situational audience analysis

audience analysis that focuses on situational factors such as the size of the audience, the physical setting for the speech, and the disposition of the audience toward the topic, the speaker, and the occasion

What four usages of inclusive language have become so widely accepted that no speaker can afford to ignore them?

avoid "he" avoid "man" when talking about both men and women avoid stereotyping jobs and social roles by gender use names that groups use to identify themselves

What are three ways you can enhance your credibility during your speeches?

explain your competence establish common ground with your audience deliver your speeches fluently, expressively, and with conviction

What are two ways to bring your speeches to life with vivid, animated language?

imagery and rhythm

Inclusive language

language that does not stereotype, demean, or patronize people on the basis of gender, race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or other factors

What four methods of organization are used most often in persuasive speeches on questions of policy?

problem-solution order problem-cause-solution order comparative advantage order Monroe's motivated sequence

Credibility • Initial credibility • Derived credibility • Terminal credibility

the audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic. The two major factors influencing a speaker's credibility are competence and character the credibility of a speaker before he/she even speaks the credibility of a speaker produced by everything he/she says and does during the speech the credibility of a speaker at the end of a speech

Mean • Median • Mode

the average value of a group of numbers the middle number in a group of numbers arranged from highest to lowest the number that occurs most frequently in a group of numbers

What four pieces of information do you usually need to provide when making oral source citations in a speech?

the document you are citing (book, magazine, etc.) the author or sponsoring organization of the document the authors qualifications the date on which the document was published

Need

the first basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from current policy?

Egocentrism

the inability to see the world through anyone else's eyes

Antithesis

the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, often in parallel structure

Reasoning • Reasoning from specific instances • Reasoning from principle

the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion (ex: my phys ed course last semester was easy, my roommate's phys ed course was easy, my brother's phys ed course was easy --> phys ed is easy) reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion (ex: all people are mortal, socrates is a person --> socrates is mortal)

Parallelism

the similar arrangement of a pair or series of related words, phrases, or sentences

Imagery

the use of vivid language to create mental images of objects, actions, or ideas