COMM370 MIDTERM
Ethnocentrism
Technical name for view of things in which one's own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it. i. Core: Tendency for any people to put their own group in a position of centrality and worth, while creating and reinforcing negative attitudes and behaviors towards out-groups. ii. Ethnocentric person: Attitudes and behaviors toward in-groups that are different from their attitudes and behaviors toward out-groups. iii. Fosters in-group survival, solidarity, conformity, cooperation, loyalty, effectiveness.
A Contemporary Conceptualization of Ethnocentrism
i. Ethnocentrism should be viewed along a continuum that everyone is, some extent, ethnocentric. a. As newborns, humans are entirely, and naturally, egocentric. b. Eventually, we develop an awareness of others around us. c. By age 2 or 3, we engage in social perspective-taking of those most central to us. These people, our biological or adapted families, are the center of our universe. d. As we become socialized, we observe that our families coexist with other families and that this culmination of people constitutes some form of neighborhood, clan, tribe, community, city, society, and finally culture. e. By the time we realize that we are a part of some much larger whole, we are officially enculturated and ethnocentric. ii. Ethnocentrism is essentially descriptive, not necessarily pejorative. a. Ethnocentrism forms the basis for patriotism and the willingness to sacrifice for one's central group. b. On the other end of the continuum, tendency for people to see their own way as the only right way can be dangerous and lead to pathological forms of ethnocentrism that result in prejudice, discrimination, and even ethnic cleansing. iii. Humans view other cultures from their own cultural vantage point: Our culture is the standard by which we evaluate other cultures and the people from those cultures. D. Enthnocentrism, Intercultural Communication, and Interpersonal Perception i. Ethnocentrism negatively influences intercultural communication. ii. Ethnocentrism acts as a perceptual filter that affects not only the perceptions of verbal and nonverbal messages but also perceptions of their source. a. We tend to initiate and maintain communication with those to whom we are attracted. b. When we interact with someone from another culture, however, our perception of the other's attractiveness is affected by our degree of ethnocentrism. c. If we perceive someone as similar to ourselves, we are most likely to be attracted to that person. d. Specifically, ethnocentrics perceive themselves as superior to out-groups, high ethnocentrics are likely to perceive out-group memebers as less attractive than in-group members. iii. Judgement of another's credibility is affected by ethnocentrism. a. Persons are thought to be credible to the degree that they are perceived to be informed, qualified, trained, intelligent, trustworthy, and so on. b. However, because they see themselves as superior, ethnocentrics tend to judge out-group members as less competent, less honest, less trustworthy, and so on.
Stereotyping
B. Defined by Gudykunst and Kim: Cognitive representations of another group that influence one's feelings about the group.
Natural/physical environment: The actual geographical space or territory in which the communication takes place.
A. Information rate: The amount of information contained or perceived in the physical environment per some unit of time a. More information available with a high information rate. i. High load: A situation with a high information rate. ii. Low load: A situation with a low information rate. b. Uncertainty in environment: To some extent, information load is equivalent to the level of uncertainty in a particular environment. i. The higher the information load, the higher the uncertainty, especially in novel and complex environments. ii. Of all the environmental factors, people are perhaps the greatest source of uncertainty. c. Ways in which information load affects people's feelings: i. Arousal-non-arousal: The arousal dimension refers to your level of stimulation and excitability. ii. Pleasure-displeasure: Pleasure refers to your degree of happiness and satisfaction. iii. Dominance-submissiveness: Dominance refers to your feelings of control or command of the situation
Culture and Cognition
A. People from different cultures think about different things due to differences in their natural environments. In addition, people from different cultures think differently about their life experiences.
Sterotyping
A. Stereotypes: Usually negative but sometimes positive perceptions of individuals based on their membership in groups.
Individualism and Collectivism in the United States
Among 11 countries, United States ranked highest in overall individualism -Because of ecological, historical, and institutional practices, the Deep South is the most collectivistic region of the United States -Hawaii, has about 65% of its population coming from Asian cultures. Hence, much of its culture has collectivistic characteristics, and Hawaii would be considered collectivistic. -On the other hand, the Mountain West and Great Plains are thought to be the most individualistic regions in the United States. -According to an index measuring collectivism in different regions of the U.S., Montana was the most individualistic state, and Hawaii was the most collectivistic (Vandello and Cohen)
Value Orientations
An understanding of cultural value systems can help identify similarities and differences between people from different cultures, from which intercultural communication can proceed. Values guide us in the selection and justification of social behavior: - Values prescribe what is preferred or prohibited. -Values are the evaluative component of an individual's attitudes and beliefs. Values guide how we think about things in terms of what is right/wrong and correct/incorrect. -Values trigger positive and negative emotions and guide our actions. -Values are concepts or beliefs that pertain to outcomes and behaviors, guide the selection and evaluation of behaviors, and are rank ordered according to their relative importance to the individual, Shalom Schwartz.
Natural/physical environment: The actual geographical space or territory in which the communication takes place.
B. Culture and the Natural Environment a. Terrestrial environment: The physical geography of the Earth. b. A culture's relationship with nature is culture bound. Culture influences how much people value nature and the symbols they use to communicate about it.
Culture and Cognition
B. The Geography of Thought i. Geographical differences in culture have a dramatic influence on how humans in those distinct geographical areas perceive the world. ii. U.S. citizens, as individualists, are accustomed to a relatively organized environment with distinctive objects in the foreground. iii. Conversely, Japanese, as collectivists, tend to focus more on the holistic background context of the scene and the relationships among the objects.
Culture and Cognition
C. A Model of Human Information Processing i. Stage #1: Input/Sensation. a. Perception: The mental interpretation of external stimuli via sensation. b. Sensation: Gathering of visual, auditory, olfactic, haptic, and taste stimuli/ information. c. Perceptual filters: Physiological, sociological, and psychological processes that screen and bias incoming stimuli. ii. Stage #2: Storage/Memory a. Memory: The storage of information in the human brain over time. - Required for virtually all human communication. - Without the ability to store information over time, we could not communicate with others. b. Short-term memory: Cognitive storage area in which small amounts of information are held for short periods of time, usually less than 20 seconds. c. Long-term memory: Cognitive storage area in which large amounts of information are held relatively permanently. - Decay: Memory loss due to lack of use. Although long-term memories also decay, long-term store seems most disrupted by interference. d. Three types of long-term memory: - Episodic long-term memory: A component of long-term memory in which private individual memories are stored. Sometimes called autobiographical memory. - Semantic long-term memory: A part of long-term memory in which general information such as how to read and write and the meanings of words are stored. - Procedural memory: One's knowledge about how to do something manually. iii. Stage #3: Recall/Retrieval a. The human information processor excels at retrieval. - Most adults can easily recall the name of their second-grade teacher but cannot remember what they had for dinner 3 nights ago. b. Quality of human information retrieval is typically approximate rather than literal: People retain global memories of conversations or events rather than verbatim transcriptions. c. Memory failure: The inability to recall or recognize stored information. d. Forgetting could be due to many reasons: - Decay: When a memory is not rehearsed or used over time. - Interference: During recall, when new or old information blocks or obstructs the recall of other information. - Negative arousal, or anxiety: Persons suffering from anxiety often report being unable to recall certain information. - Repression: When people actively, but unconsciously, forget unpleasant material.
Sterotyping
C. A natural and universal information-processing strategy: A normal information-processing tool that is especially useful in diverse societies. i. Problem: When stereotypes carry a negative valence and are used to overgeneralize negative traits to an entire group of people. Can lead to ethnocentrism, prejudice, and discrimination.
Natural/physical environment: The actual geographical space or territory in which the communication takes place.
C. Progress in science and technology: Because of scientific and technological progress, we now see the environment as something we can control and dominate.
Collectivism
Cultural orientation where the group is the primary unit of culture. Group goals take precedence over individual goals. The assumption is that groups bind and mutually obligate individuals. Collectivism is linked to a sense of duty to group, interdependence, harmony, and working with the group. Collectivistic cultures stress values that serve the in-group by subordinating personal goals for the sake of preserving the in-group. Collectivistic societies are characterized by extended primary groups such as the family, neighborhood, or occupational group in which members have diffuse mutual obligations and expectations based on their status or rank.
Culture and Cognition
D. Cross-Cultural Differences in Memory and Retrieval i. Cultures have different educational systems and methods, their people may have different memory skills. ii. Exploring Japanese and U.S. students' recognition memory of statements made during a videotaped mathematics lesson. a. The Japanese and U.S. students were equally successful at recognizing relevant statements, but U.S. students remembered more irrelevant statements than did the Japanese. iii. Culture's language and literacy rate may affect recall. iv. Chinese persons may have superior memory.
Natural/physical environment: The actual geographical space or territory in which the communication takes place.
D. Culture and terrestrial contexts: Although all cultures exist within specific terrestrial contexts, features of the terrestrial environment exist in every culture.
Sterotyping
D. U.S. Stereotypes ii. Melting-pot metaphor: Essence of the political doctrine in the U.S. is modeled on it. People of all the different cultures immigrating to the United States get "stirred up in the great pot until cultural differences are boiled away and culture remains American." iii. Perceived similarity: Psychologists studying interpersonal attraction have long understood that perceived similarity is a major determinant in how much people are attracted to and like others. v. People in different countries are brought up in entirely different cultural contexts, in which it is perfectly acceptable to categorize people into groups. vi. The fundamental feature of any pluralistic society: Ethnic attitudes exist between different groups, particularly in-groups and out-groups.
Schwartz Theory of Basic Values:
Describes nature of values and characteristics common to all values as well as characteristics that differentiate one value from another. i. 10 values are considered universal because they are based on what Schwartz believes are three universal requirements of human existence; may differ significantly in terms of the relative importance of a special value: (a) the needs of individuals as biological organisms, (b) the fundamentals of coordinated social interaction, and (c) survival and welfare needs of groups. ii. In trying to explain why these 10 values are pancultural (across cultures), Schwartz points to two factors: (a) human nature and (b) maintaining societies and social order.
Microculture differ from the larger cultures in many ways.
Due to race and ethncity. -In the U.S., about 61% of the population is classified as White or Caucasian. -Black Americans, Hispanic/Latinos, and Asian Americans might be considered microcultural groups. Due to language or religion. -In the U.S., Christians might be considered the dominant or majority group while Muslims can be considered a microcultural group. Due to their behavioral practices. -Persons who use drugs are often said to belong to a counter- or drug culture because they use drugs. -Members of LGBTQ community could be considered a microculture due to their sexual orientation. Microcultural groups generally have less power than the majority culture. In the U.S., power among groups is not distributed equally. This could be legal, political, economic, or even religious. Minority groups: Subordinate groups whose members have significantly less power and control over their own lives than do members. Majority groups are typically the groups with the most power while minority groups are with less power. A minority group may be larger in population than majority group.
Culture and Cognition
E. Categorization and Mental Economy i. Categorization: Classifying or sorting of perceived information into distinct groups. a. Grouping, sorting, or classifying objects, events, or living things into identifiable groups or compartments based on the belief that the category members share certain features or characteristics. ii. All people, regardless of culture, engage in categorization and it is a necessary part of everyday life. iii. An essential cognitive mechanism by which humans organize and manage the natural and social world that surrounds them. iv. Categories are useful as they help the information processor reduce uncertainty and increase the accuracy of predictions about others. v. Categories help us make attributions about the behavior of others and help us recall and recognize information. vi. Form categories based on perceived conspicuous differences. a. Conspicuous differences categories are based on easily seen similarities or differences. b. These types of categories are formed quickly during initial interaction with someone from a different culture. c. Conspicuous differences may stem from skin color, dress, language, or occupation. d. These differences help classify others as members of in-groups and out-groups. vii. In-groups and out-groups: A principal category formed by people that often leads to intergroup discrimination and intergroup bias. a. Such bias may have nothing to do with irrational thought processes but is a consequence of people's attempts to organize and simplify their environment.
Stereotyping
E. Media Influence on Stererotypes ii: Cultivation theory, developed by George Gerbner and his colleagues: Long-term exposure to media, especially television, "cultivates" in viewers a perception of social reality that is reflective of the content they view on television. a. Cultivation process is a dynamic, interdependent one that evolves and adapts with each new generation of viewers. iii. Heavy viewers of television believe that the real world is similar to the world they see on television, which may not be true.
Natural/physical environment: The actual geographical space or territory in which the communication takes place.
E. Physical environment and vocabulary: As the physical environment of a culture varies, so will the vocabulary of the culture. Cultures with different environments create verbal and nonverbal symbols that enable them to adapt to and communicate about their environment.
Natural/physical environment: The actual geographical space or territory in which the communication takes place.
F. Pace reflects climate of area: In many cultures, the pace of daily activities reflects the natural climate of the area. For example, southern European countries close shops in the afternoon during warm-weather season to avoid hottest part of the day. Visitors from other countries may interpret this as laziness.
Stereotyping
F. Why Stereotype? i. Stereotypes help in developing and maintaining a positive self-esteem. a. Our memberships in various groups constitute a major aspect of our self-concept. Our social identities are essentially made up of our group memberships. b. Stereotype threat: When a stereotype group believes the stereotype about them may be true. The phenomenon occurs because individuals are afraid of the implications of confirming the stereotype held by others. It inhibits efficient information processing in much the same way as other evaluative pressures do. Can occur in variety of ways. - One's personal self: What if this stereotype is true of me? - One's group membership: What if this stereotype is true of my group?
Sterotyping
G. Stereotypes and Expectations i. Stereotypes distort social perception of others: Human perception is not necessarily accurate and honest. Perception is influenced by one's needs, wishes, and expectations. People perceive what they expect to perceive, regardless of reality.
Natural/physical environment: The actual geographical space or territory in which the communication takes place.
G. Worldviews of the Natural Environment a. Cultures can be described as having one of three orientations toward nature, depending on what their members believe: i. People are subjugated to nature, ii. They are an inherent part of nature, or iii. They are dominant over nature. b. A cultures orientation toward nature affects how people within that culture communicate about nature and organize their daily activities. i. The Japanese are well known for their attempts to harmonize with nature, which can be seen in Japanese art forms such as gardening and flower arrangements and Haiku poetry. c. Western societies: People believe that nature is something to be controlled, domesticated, and subjugated. i. Some scholars attribute this view to Judeo-Christian doctrine, in which God, who is seen as the creator of the universe, is said to have put humans on Earth to do his will. ii. People are not just part of the environment, like trees, plants, or animals, but are of divine origin. Such philosophies have led to a separation between humans and the environment. d. Scientific revolution: Nature as mechanistic: When the scientific revolution developed, nature was seen as mechanistic, further separating people from nature. For example, other countries where European settlement has occurred, the environment is seen as an entity to be conquered.
Minorities
Groups of people who differ from the general societal culture in some custom, habit, or practice within a cultural group.
Natural/physical environment: The actual geographical space or territory in which the communication takes place.
H. The Built Environment a. Adaptations to the terrestrial environment, including architecture, housing, lighting, and landscaping. b. The built environment is not random: It is an intentionally designed pattern of spatial relationships between object and objects, objects and people, and people and people. The built environment organizes and manages human communication between people, and it varies considerably across cultures. c. Structured for specific activities: Culture affects how the built environment is designed. d. Interior directs activities: Interior of any given built environment influences and directs the way activities are carried out, how the family is structured, how gender roles are played, attitudes toward privacy, and the overall process of social interaction. How the built environment is planned and constructed reflects the values, motivations, and resources of the culture wherin it exists.
Perceptual context
How the human brain takes in, stores, and recalls information. Whenever two people come together and communicate, they do so within a cultural context, a microcultural context, and an environmental context. Intercultural communication is a process of connecting the perceptual contexts of the two interactants within the other contexts. Our knowledge of the world is dependent on our senses. which is subjective and biased.
Natural/physical environment: The actual geographical space or territory in which the communication takes place.
I. Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Housing a. Home: Symbolic communication dimension: Heathcote maintains that a home expresses a symbolic social communication dimension that defines one's creative expression and style, as well as represents the social network and social class of its owner. b. Three structures of home: i. Personal home: It is an extension of one's emotional expression. ii. Social home: It is a place to share, entertain, and build relationships. iii. Physical home: It is the physical structure and architectural style. c. Home presents a particularly rich source of information about a culture's perception and use of space.
Microculture
Identifiable groups of people who share the same set of values, beliefs, and behaviors of the macroculture, possess a common history, and use a common verbal and nonverbal symbol system. -Microcultural groups are made up of individuals who have much in common with the larger macroculture yet are bonded together by similar experiences, traits, values, or, in some cases, histories. -Includes different types of groups that could be classified by age, class, geographic region, sexual preference, disability, (e.g., the deaf), ethnicity, race, size, or even occupation.
Culture Values and Communication of Hispanics/Latinos
In Hispanic/ Latino societies, the family or group needs take precedence over individual needs. Hispanics/ Latinos seem collectivistic across a variety of contexts, including academics. Students tend to be cooperative, whereas White students tend to be competitive and individualistic. Thought to be a very religious microculture, but that appears to be changing. 25% of Hispanic/Latino adults now consider themselves former Catholics. In communication, Hispanics/Latinos tend to be group oriented as they appear exceptionally concerned about any behavior that would upset the harmony of their household, church, or workplace.
Individualism
Individuals are encouraged to pursue and develop their abilities and aptitudes. The individual is emotionally disconnected from in-groups such as the family. People are taught to be creative, self-reliant, and assertive. Many of the groups to which an individualist belongs are designed to enhance self-worth like self-help groups, therapy groups, or occupational groups. Individualistic cultures are highly complex and affluent. Complex cultures have heterogeneous populations and economies based on occupational specialization, in which individuals do different jobs.
Natural/physical environment: The actual geographical space or territory in which the communication takes place.
J. Privacy a. Privacy is culture bound: It is considered a learned response to particular social situations. b. Boundary control process: Privacy is a "boundary control" process whereby people sometimes make themselves accessible to others and sometimes close themselves off from others. c. Privacy linked to built environment: Lang states that privacy is closely linked to the built environment because it can be designed or maneuvered in a number of ways to promote, encourage, or restrict communication with others. d. Westin: Types of privacy: i: Solitude, or the state of being free from observation of others; ii. Intimacy, or the state of being with another person but free from the outside world; iii. Anonymity, or the state of being unknown even in a crowd; and iv. Reserve, or the state in which a person employs psychological barriers to control unwanted intrusion. e. These different forms of privacy serve different purposes, including personal autonomy, release of emotions, self-evaluation, and communication. f. The type of degree of privacy desired depends on the type of behavior in which one engages, the culture, and the individual's personality traits.
Natural/physical environment: The actual geographical space or territory in which the communication takes place.
K. Cross-Cultural Variations on Privacy i. Men and women's score: Men tend to score higher on isolation, while women score higher on intimacy with family and friends. ii. Three consistent trends in privacy choices: a. People from the mountain states tend to score higher than do those on the West Coast in their preferences for isolation, anonymity, and solitude. b. People from the Southwest are like those on the West Coast in their low preference for isolation and like those in the mountain states in their high preference for anonymity. c. Those on the West Cost score lower than all others on solitude. iii. Law of Protection of Minors: In 1992 China enacted the Law of Protection of Minors, which, among other things, legislated a child's right to privacy. iv: Urban Chinese houses now provided children with private spaces. v. Privacy examined in three areas: a. Spatial: Spatial privacy issues would include children being allowed to close the door when in a room with a group of friends. b. Physical: Physical privacy would include parents refraining from hugging or kissing their teenage children when in public if the children do not like it. c. Mental: Mental privacy is about parental access to what children watch on the Internet, their exam scores, e-mails to friends, and the like. vi: Privacy in Turkish family: In the typical Turkish family, the children develop an intimate and dependent, but restricted, relationship with their parents.
Natural/physical environment: The actual geographical space or territory in which the communication takes place.
L. Online Privacy Across Cultures i: Privacy paradox: Some research has found that people disclosed information online even when there were perceived risks, however. This phenomenon is labeled the "privacy paradox". ii. Two dimensions of cultural variability: Individualism-collectivism and strong-weak uncertainty avoidance - influence the privacy calculus. iii. High uncertainty avoidance cultures found privacy risks to be more important when making privacy-related disclosure decisions. iv: Multinational study of online privacy: Research points out: a. Female Internet users are more concerned about their personal privacy than are male users. b. Older and better educated persons are also more concerned about privacy, presumably because they are more aware of privacy problems.
Five characteristics that distinguish microcultural groups from the dominant culture:
Members of group possess some physical or cultural trait that distinguishes them from others. -Skin color and sex. -Language or distinctive dress habits. Microcultural group membership is usually not voluntary. -Not always, people are generally born into their microculture. -Example: Caste system in India's society is a rigid social hierarchy Microcultural group members generally practice endogamy: Marrying within the in-group. -Majority groups believe that endogamy strengthens familial ties, preserves family property through inheritance, and upholds cultural and group traditions. Group members are aware of their subordinate status. -As they know they are less powerful within a particular culture, some microcultural groups become very cohesive. -In many cultures, microcultural group members may prefer to live in the same neighborhoods and socialize among themselves. Experience unequal treatment from the dominant group in the form of segregation and discrimination.
Collectivism
People are not seen isolated individuals but as interdependent with others, where responsibility is shared and accountability is collective. A person's identity is defined by his or her group memberships and individuals are emotionally connect to the in-group. A collectivist's values and beliefs are consistent with and reflect those of the in-group. Group harmony is so highly valued, so obedience to and compliance with in-group pressures is routine.
Black Americans (second largest microcultural group)
The history of Black Americans in the United States dates as far back as the history of Euro-Americans. Black people arrived in the New World with the first White explorers. In 1790, Black people represented a little more than 19% of the total population of the U.S., which declined to 9.7% in 1910. The rate of Black American population growth remains relatively stable. The microcultural group made great progress in the 20th and 21st centuries due to mostly the civil rights movement. However, there are still gaps between the Black Americans and Caucasians: income, education, employment, and housing. In 2018, the median household income among Black Americans was $40,202, while for all races it was $60,336. Still, Black American buying power increased 98% from 2000 to 2016. Black American Communication --> Ebonics: From the terms ebony and phonics, a grammatically robust and rich African American speech pattern whose roots are in West Africa. The term refers to a grammatically complex speech pattern used by many Black American. It is uniquely derived from the language of descendants of slaves and it was developed as a result of contact between slaves and Europeans. Ebonics pronunciation includes features such as the omission of the final consonant. Example: past (i.e., pas') and hand (i.e., han'). Pronunciation of the vowel in words such as my and ride as a long ah. These pronunciations occur in vernacular White English as well. They are systematic and result of regular grammatical rules and are not random grammatical errors.
Individualism
The most relevant feature of individualism is valuing personal independence. Emphasis is placed on personal responsibility and freedom of choice, personal autonomy, and achieving self-fulfillment. Individual goals are emphasized over group goals. Individualists tend to see themselves as unique from others.
Ethnocentric attributional bias:
The tendency to make internal attributions for the positive behavior of the in-group while making external attributions for its negative behavior; also called the ultimate attribution error.
Asian Americans (fastest growing microcultural group in the US)
Today, Asian Americans make up nearly 6% of the U.S. population. The Asian American population grew over 70% between 2000 and 2015 from 12 million in 2000 to over 20 million in 2015. From the 20 million persons classified as Asian Americans, about 5 million are Chinese, 4 million are Indian, just under 4 million are Filipino, 2 million are Vietnamese, and just under 2 million are Korean. Other cultural groups include the Japanese, Pakistanis, Cambodians, Hmong, Thai, and Laotians. More than 50% of Asian American are college educated, but that varies according the Asian origin group. For example, Indians over 70% hold a bachelor's degree while 17% of Hmong hold a bachelor's degree.
Individualism-Collectivism
Used to compare and contrast cultures and microcultures. Cultures falling on one side of continuum are individualistic, while those falling toward the other side are collectivistic. Cultures falling at the midpoint might possess both individualistic and collectivistic characteristics. Regardless of the culture, most persons carry both individualistic and collectivistic tendencies to some degree. The difference is that in some cultures individualistic tendencies dominate, while in others collectivistic tendencies dominate.
Individualism vs. Collectivism
a. Among collectivist, social behavior is guided by the group. Along with group membership come prescribed duties and obligations. Among individualists, social behavior is guided by one's personal attitudes, motivations, and other internal processes. b. Individualistic cultures value and reward an individual's uniqueness while collectivistic cultures, on the other hand, stress harmony and cooperation. From the collectivist's perspective, an individual who stands out from the group disrupts harmony. c. A culture's individualistic or collectivistic orientation will likely affect child-rearing practices. In individualistic cultures, child rearing emphasizes independence, exploration, creativity, and self-reliance. In collectivistic cultures, child rearing emphasizes conformity, obedience, security, and reliability. Collectivistic parents teach their children the importance of family lineage and ancestry. d. There are advantages and disadvantages to being an individualist, just as there are to being a collectivst. Neither approach is "better" than the other; they are simply different orientations. The goal is to recognize and understand the differences. We cannot rely on single metaphorical distinctions such as individualism-collectivism if we really want to accurately describe and ultimately understand other cultures. e. Individual self is the most fundamental basis for self-definition in individualistic cultures, whereas the collective self is the most fundamental basis of self-definition in collectivistic cultures. The individual self is more fundamental to self-definition across cultures than is the collective self (Pancultural Self). Self-enhancement is the idea that people desire to maintain and enhance positive self-views. Self-protection is conceptually the opposite that is, to minimize negative self- views.
Microcultures in the United States
a. Formation of microcultural group: Immigration, annexation, or colonization. b. Hispanic/Latino - the largest microcultural group in the US (as well as the youngest with a median age of 28 years old). Defined by the US government as a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin. Hispanics/ Latinos are not considered a racial group: US government distinguishes between race and Hispanic/ Latino origin, considering the two to be separate and distinct. Persons who consider themselves Hispanic/ Latino may be Black, as in the Dominican Republic; White, as in Argentina; or of mixed racial heritage, as in Mexico. California has the largest percentage of Hispanic/ Latinos, followed by Texas, Florida, New York, and Illinois. Hispanic/Latino microculture plays a significant role in the US economy.
Four defining attributes of individualism-collectivism according to Triandis:
a. How individuals perceive themselves. ("I am distinct and unique" vs. "I am a member of a family, tribe") b. How individuals relate to others. ("How/what do I gain from this act?" vs. ("How will this act affect others?") c. The goals individuals follow. ("I want to win" vs. "I'm a team player to help the group win") d. What drives individuals' behavior. ("It is my right to do this" vs. "My duty is to my group")
Culture is the software of the mind (Geert Hofstede):
a. Human brain as a computer where information is entered, stored, and recalled. b. Without the brain's ability to take in, store, and recall information, human communication would be impossible. c Culture teaches and conditions the human brain exactly how to take in, store, and retrieve information.
