Communication 1 Final

Gersick's Punctuated Equilibrium Model

*Groups progress in a punctuated equilibrium process: a period of inertia or inactivity until they become aware of time, pressure, and looming deadlines, which then compel group members to take action* • Groups enter through this in a cyclical fashion, with long periods of inactivity followed by spurts of intense activity and change, and that this pattern almost becomes a habit or routine .

Historical Inequalities

• •

Intercultural Communication Challenges

*1. Anxiety* *2. Ethnocentrism* *3. Discrimination*

Selling

*A lot of instruction getting people motivated* High Task Orientation, High Relational Orientation

Organizational Culture

*An organization's unique set of beliefs, values, norms, and ways of doing things* Shares beliefs, values, of the organization, norms for working, interacting • Some are widespread organizational norms. EX: Industry-wide jargon/office speak • Workplace traditions (casual Fridays) Organization culture created, sustained and modified through: • Stories and myths are told EX: Story of Disneyland employees • Rituals and ceremonies EX: Graduation from UCSB • Informal talk (the social "grapevine") EX: Water cooler talk

Complexity of Group Communication

*1. Size and Complexity of Groups*: • small group communication involves at least three members, with a maximum of fifteen to twenty-five members • In order to effectively perform tasks within classrooms or work projects, five to seven members may be optimum Logistics of communication grow more complex the larger a group gets, creating structured communication exchanges among members. • *Interaction is more formal*: may feel the need to obtain permission to speak, and they may also be reluctant to interrupt a speaker. • *Each member has limited opportunities to contribute*: few members tend to dominate much of the talk, while the less assertive members tend to remain quiet. • *The communication becomes less intimate*: participants feel less comfortable self-disclosing or voicing controversial opinions. • *The interaction consumes more time*: more opinions possible, the interaction takes longer to complete. • *Relationships become more complex*: number of relationships multiplies further with each additional participant! *2. Formation of Cliques*: as group size increases, small subgroups of individuals often begin to bond together within the group, forming cliques When cliques take shape in a group, communication becomes more challenging: • How to communicate with entire subgroups. • Countercoalitions: one subgroup positions itself against another on an issue • *Social ostracism*: the exclusion of a particular group member (or members) that leads to anxiety, anger, and sadness, as targets of ostracism feel a decrease in belonging, control, and self esteem *3.Social Loafing* failing to invest the same level of effort in the group that they'd put in if they were working alone or with one other person • Affects both participation and communication in groups • Perceived inequality of effort causes conflict Ex: Feeling Shy, Feelings of Anonymity *Reduce Social Loafing:* • *Establish objectives and performance goals*: Make the schedule clear and clarify what each member's individual responsibility is. • *Establish individual accountability*: members understand that they are expected to carry out their duties and evaluated on performance • *Encourage team identity and ownership*: take the time to get to know each other and build social bonds and trust, take pride and ownership in work—which will also promote dedication to the cause. • *Stay in contact*: If miscommunication occurs discuss it right away. *4. Group Networks*: patterns of interaction governing who speaks with whom in a group and about what. . • *Centrality*: the degree to which an individual sends and receives messages from others in the group. • team leader or manager typically has the highest level of centrality in a formal group, • *Isolation*: The individual with the least amount of message communication. *Types of networks:* *• Chain Networks*: Information is passed from one member to the next in a sequential pattern. Advantages: • Practical for sharing written information: an e-mail FWD. Disadvantages: • Lead to frustration and miscommunication when information is spoken, as the messages can easily get distorted as they are passed along. • *All-Channel Networks*: all members interact with each other equally. Advantages: • Roundtable discussions • No leader, and all members operate at the same level of centrality • Collaborative projects • Brainstorming ideas Disadvantages: • Lack of order= Inefficient • *Wheel Networks*: one individual acts as a touchstone for all the others in the group; all group members share their information with that one individual, who then shares the information with the rest of the group. Advantages: • Efficient: if activities and contributions must be culled and tracked in order to avoid duplicating efforts and to ensure that all tasks are being completed Disadvantages: • Lowest shared centrality

Economics

*Consequences of Economics -Need "hits" big audience -Very little risk taking -Do not want viewers or advertisers offended -boycotts can sometimes be effective -industry self-censorship is common -"Standards and Practices" EX: - I Love Lucy couldn't say "pregnant" in the 50's - I Dream of a Genie couldn't show bellybuttons in the 60's - South park and Tosh.0 are always pushing censorship boundries -But controversy can boost ratings EX: -Miley Cyrus at the VMA's -Repeat what works EX: -Sequels, remakes, copycat shows, spin-offs, and re-releases Main Sources of Revenue: 1. Consumer purchases: going to the movies, subscribing to cable, satellite or on-demand online streaming services, and buying magazines, e-books, or DVDs. 2. Advertising: sole support for several other media, including broadcast TV and radio and much of the Internet. • print media: circulation size • live TV and radio: ratings • Web sites and streamed TV content

Traditional view of Contact

*Intergroup Contact Theory*: Interaction between members of different social groups generates a possibility for more positive attitudes to emerge Combats: • *Behavioral affirmation*—seeing or hearing what we want to see or hear • *Behavioral confirmation*—when we act in a way that makes our expectations about a group come true • *Contact cultures*: depend on touch as an important form of communication Example: Latin American, Mediterranean, and Eastern European *Noncontact cultures*: touch-sensitive or even tend to avoid touch. Example: Scandinavian cultures *Public touch*: the type of interpersonal relationship that exists and the culture in which it occurs, affects both the amount of touch and the area of the body that is appropriate to touch *Social-polite touch:*: for example, involves a handshake between American men but a kiss between Arabic men. And some religions prohibit opposite-sex touch between unmarried or unrelated individuals.

Becoming a More Mindful Media Consumer

*Media Literate*- developing an understanding of your own media habits and critically evaluating and analyzing media sources and messages. To Become Media Literate: • Monitor Your Media Use and Exposure • Consider the Source of Media Messages • Be Aware of Media Effects • Understand the Grammar of Media • *Actively Evaluate Media Messages*:Take time to think critically about the messages you send as well as those you receive.

Solutions to Intercultural Conflict

*The "Traditional" Solutions* 1.*Intercultural knowledge*: • Learn other's cultures. • The ISSUES are: -You can't learn all about the other culture -Over 5000 differences between Japanese and English culture alone -Can even use cultural knowledge to against them 2. *Accomodate a bit* • Give and take, speak the same language • The ISSUES are: -Who's language? 3. *Have lots of contact* • Just get different groups together to have "quality time" • The ISSUES are: -Can actively reinforce intergroup biases

Group Leadership

*The ability to direct or influence others' behaviors and thoughts toward a productive end* Using: • Direction • Influence

Agenda Setting

*The idea that extensive media coverage of a particular issue or event, will "set the agenda" for what issues people are thinking and talking about. * Issues that do not get much coverage will not seem very important. • is important because we use the issues we are thinking about to evaluate political leaders and potential policy decisions Traditional media do still have an agenda-setting effect • weakened for people who use multiple online news sources • agenda-setting effects may be a two-way process online: 1.news stories encourage people to search for those issues online 2. online searches or Facebook or Twitter posts also influence the coverage in the news media

Credibility

*The quality, authority and reliability of each source you use* • Up-to-Date Sources • Accurate Sources • Compelling Sources

Power Distance

*a culture's ideas about the division of power among individuals.* Status differences in a culture result in some groups or individuals having more power than others. Position in the cultural hierarchy influenced by: • social class • age • job title • birth order

LISTENING

*a multidimensional process of recognizing, understanding, accurately interpreting, and responding effectively to the messages you hear*

Groupthink

*a problem in which group members strive to maintain cohesiveness and minimize conflict by refusing to critically examine ideas, analyze proposals, or test solutions* Ex: The Challenger disaster Symptoms of Groupthink: • Participants reach outward consensus and avoid expressing disagreement so as not to hurt each other's feelings or appear disloyal. • Members who do express disagreement with the majority are pressured to conform to the majority view. • Tough questions are ignored or discouraged. • Members spend more effort justifying their decisions than testing them. Prevent Groupthink: encourage dissent among members and manage it productively

High Power Distance Cultures

*accept their difference in power as a basic fact of life* Example: India, China, Japan Characteristics: • Experience more anxiety when they communicate with those of higher status • Tend to accept coercion as normal and avoid challenging authority

Masculine Orientation

*an achievement culture—places value on assertiveness, achievement, ambition, and competitiveness* Examples: Mexico, Japan, Italy Characteristics: • Men and women in such cultures also usually make clear distinctions between the sexes • Expect more aggressiveness in men and more passivity in women

Uses & Gratifications Perspective

*focuses on what we do with media—that is, the way we make media choices(uses) in order to satisfy our needs and goals (gratifications)*

Low Context Culture

*uses very direct language and relies less on situational factors to communicate.* Examples: United States, Canada, Australia, Northern European countries. Find indirectness very confusing Characteristics: • Rely on direct language for communicating meaning • Admire standing out and getting credit • Construct explicit messages • Usually express disagreement clearly • Tend to find explanations for behaviors in individuals • Admire eloquence and very direct verbal messages

Individualistic Culture

*value each person's autonomy, privacy, and personal "space."* Values individualist competition (contribution to team...MVP), self esteem, self reliance, independence, privacy. Examples: United States, Great Britain, Australia, Germany Characteristics: • pay relatively little attention to status and hierarchy based on age or family connections • Individual "self-esteem" is important • Individual initiative and achievement are rewarded • Individual credit and blame are assigned

Social Identity Theory

*• Personal identity* *• Social identity*

Problem solving

1. *Identifying the Problem* • Without a clear, agreed-on problem to address, a group can't work through the rest of the decision-making process in a focused way. 2. *Analyzing the Problem* 3. *Generating Solutions* • Brainstorming: encourages members of a group to come up with as many ideas as possible without judging the merits of those ideas at first. 4. *Evaluating the Choosing Solutions* 5. *Implementing the Solution* 6. *Assessing the Results* • Evaluation can shed light on how effective the solution was and whether the group needs to make further decisions about the problem at hand.

Evaluating Group Preformance

1. Informational Considerations 2. Procedural Effectiveness 3. Interpersonal Performance 4. Individual Performance

Cultural Listening Context

In various parts of the United States and abroad, you will encounter listening behaviors different from your own. • Perceptions of appropriate listening vary among cultures. • If you are comfortable or aware of only the preferred listening style of your own culture, miscommunication can occur.

Characteristics of a Group

• *A shared identity*: Recognize other members of the group, have specific feelings toward those individuals, and experience a sense of belonging • *Common goals*: a shared sense of purpose helps define a group • *Interdependent relationships*: Members adopt specific roles and collaborate to accomplish their goals

Types of Distortion

• *Leveling process* (talking things out) • *Sharpening process* (things told, are exaggerated) • *Assimilation* (retelling is biased)

Informal Communication

• Social practices are important EX: 15 minutes without professor, you can leave • Distortion via the social grapevine

Nielsen 2

and main points in the second article(s) about the criticisms of those ratings, etc.

GS--Tubbs

message issues, etc.

Selective Listening

*Zero in only on bits of information that interest you, disregarding other messages or parts of messages* May be beneficial: • Decide to ignore your sister's comment that you are the "preferred" child in the family and instead just focus on her ideas for planning a happy upcoming holiday gathering. Negative Implications: • hate group projects, may only pay attention to the disagreeable or negative things that they say. • Unethical in evaluating impressions of people. *Insensitive listening*: listen only to the words someone says, failing to pay attention to the emotional content. To improve your communication, particularly when you're feeling apprehensive or defensive: • must take care to acknowledge your selective listening and pay attention to both the verbal and nonverbal aspects of a message. • must not close your ears to competing information just because it makes you uncomfortable.

Status

*a social currency, unequally distributed within groups, which gives some members more power than others.* Clear hierarchy or perceived status—based not in any kind of formal rules but instead on peoples' perceptions of one another—can be potent. Factors to increase perceptions of status: • Material resources • Information • Physical attractiveness • Gender • Competence • Communicative effectiveness Higher status: • More opportunities to make contributions toward completing the task, • Their suggestions are often evaluated more positively • Exert greater influence over lower-status members

High Uncertainty Avoidance Cultures

*are more anxious about the unknown and strive to minimize risk and uncertainty by following social rules and minimizing dissent.* Examples: Portugal, Greece, Peru, and Japan Communication Characteristics: • Communication is usually governed by formal rules to satisfy a need for absolute truth, correct answers, and stability • People value consensus and have little tolerance for differences of opinion

Comfort with Uncertainty

*cultures adapt their behaviors to reduce uncertainty and risk, a process called uncertainty avoidance* • High Uncertainty Avoidance Cultures • Low Uncertainty Avoidance Cultures

Low Uncertainty Avoidance Cultures

*have a lower level of anxiety about the unknown and a higher tolerance for risk and ambiguity.* Example: Sweden, Denmark, Ireland, and the United States Communication Characteristics: • Comfortable with a variety of communication styles • More tolerant of differences of opinion • Have fewer formal rules for behavior

Media Bias

*our own thoughts, opinions, and experiences influence the messages we send as well as the way we interpret the messages we receive* These communication biases are also at work when it comes to mass media. • media sources express some degree of bias in their viewpoints and in their content. Ex: News coverage of a presidential campaign • today's media are increasingly embracing more partisan news in order to compete in a crowded marketplace • we tend to see those with whom we agree as less biased than those with whom we disagree. • bias in the media is also a function of the economics and constraints of the news-gathering process itself The 24/7 news cycle lead to over-reliance on easy sources • Framing refers to the way issues in the news get presented in order to relate to audiences' existing schemas

Collectivist Culture

*perceive themselves first and foremost as members of a group,* Value competition between groups, obligation to group (how you affect your group with your behaviors, social role/position) Examples: Arab and Latin American Cultures, as well as many Asian cultures: Chinese, Japanese. Characteristics: • Value group goals and emphasize group harmony and cooperation • Communication governed by a clear recognition of status and hierarchy among group members • Loyalty to the group and the honor of one's family are more important than individual needs or desires • Concerned with relational support; they avoid hurting others' feelings, apologize, and make efforts to help others to maintain the group's reputation and position of respect

Cognitive Component of Listening

*selecting a specific message to pay attention to, focusing on it, and understanding it* Mental processes of selecting messages to focus on, giving them our attention, and then trying to understand them. • *Selecting*: A process of choosing one sound over the others • *Attending*: Electing to focus attention on the communication. • *Understanding*: Making sense of messages—enables you to interpret meaning.

Social Identity

*self-concept that comes from your group memberships* •*Ingroups*: groups with which we identify and to which we feel we belong (Us) •*Outgroups*: groups with which we do not identify and to which we disassociate from (Them/Others)

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

*the communication between people from different cultures who have different worldviews* Bigger culturally, intercultural business, understanding other cultures

Affective Component of Listening

*the motivation to pay attention to messages* • Attitude toward listening to a person or message • prone to "tune out" Affect our motivation to listen: • Preexisting schemas that we have about a person, topic, or situation • Listening challenges

Low Power Distance Cultures

*tolerate less difference in power between people* Example: United States, Canada, Germany, Australia Characteristics: • Communicate with those higher in status with less anxiety • More likely to challenge the status quo, consider multiple options or possibilities for action, and resist coercion

High Context Culture

*use contextual cues—such as time, place, relationship, and situation—to send subtle messages.* Examples: Japan, Korea, China, Latin America, Africa Requires communication partner to understand the message solely from clues of disagreement in the context, (i.e. silence). *Nonverbal indirectness* Characterisitics: • Rely on contextual cues and nonverbal signals for communicating meaning • Avoid speaking in a way that causes individuals to stand out from others • Usually express opinions indirectly • Usually express disagreement by saying nothing or being verbally vague • Tend to find explanations for behaviors in the situation • Admire relationship harmony

Internet Issues for Society

1. *A Democratizing Technology* Can facilitate participation in culture/politics • No real skills or money needed, so anyone can use it • Gives voice to "marginalized" groups • Not going to be the ones getting attention in the media News that mainstream media avoids • Social/political movements and causes • Hate groups, pedophiles, terrorists etc... Individuals have voice/empowerment • User generated content (digital video, blogs etc) • Citizen journalists, fan commentary Easy/cheap access via social media Fame is "click driven" (no huge PR budgets) 2. *But there are barriers* • Tech phobias and frustrations • Digital Disparities: Lack of access to broadband connection. Differences in online use. • Information Overload: the difficulty in sorting through and making sense of vast amounts of information 3. *Audiences need to be "media literate"* • Hard to evaluate quality of information conveyed • potential for effective citizen participation is limited when users create or distribute false or other dangerous kinds of information online. • Credible?

Unethical Leadership

Bullying tactics: • harsh criticism • name-calling, • gossip • slander • personal attacks • threats to safety or job security • offensive gestures • ignoring • withering looks • sarcastic tone of voice Unethical Leadership Qualities: • withhold needed information from group members, • exclude them from meetings, or • insist on unrealistic deadlines or expectations. Machiavellianism: use deceit, flattery, and other exploitative measures strategically to achieve their desired ends • they are liked less • have less credibility

Types of Groups

Most common: *Primary groups*: longlasting groups that form around the relationships that mean the most to their members. Ex: family, friends. Groups defined by their specific functions: *Support group*: a set of individuals who come together to address personal problems while benefiting from the support of others with similar issues *Social group*: membership in the group offers opportunities to form relationships with others *Problem-Solving group*: group with a specific mission—to help members manage their struggles Task-oriented Groups: *Study groups*: formed for the specific purpose of helping students prepare for exams. most task-oriented • *Team*: group that works together to carry out a project or to compete against other teams. Example: Sports teams, Reconnaissance team *Self-directed work team (SDWT)*: a group of skilled workers who take responsibility themselves for producing high-quality finished work • Members control their own management functions, such as arranging their schedules, buying equipment, and setting standards for productivity, quality, and costs. • Conduct their own peer evaluations and coordinate their future plans with management. • Complementary skills and experiences enable the team to accomplish more together than any individual member could achieve independently Impact of Self-directed teams: • Improved performance and cooperation of employees throughout the organization. • Organizations are shifting their structural power and decision making from upper levels to lower levels of management in efforts to implement change and growth and empower employees

3rd Person Effect

Selectivity may limit media effects • Tend to overestimate how much influence media actually have on people. *Tendency we have to assume that negative media messages and bias have a much greater influence on other people than on ourselves or people we think are like us* • Lead to censorship when we believe it will protect "other" people who we don't think are able to handle certain media messages. • Strong for social networking: think others are more influenced by Facebook than we ourselves are

Selectivity

Selectivity- audiences are not passive sponges that absorb everything that media throws at them. Active Audience- audiences look for cues to find that something on television is interesting. Media Effects are much more limited than we once thought!

Relational and Situational Listening Contexts

The situation we're in and the relationship we have with other communicators at any given time have a profound effect on our communication.

Supervisor-Supervisee Relationships

The supervisor has power over the supervisee • Schedule adequate time for important conversations. • Ask supervisees for suggestions and ideas. • Demonstrate that you're listening when a supervisee is speaking to you, giving appropriate verbal and nonverbal responses, such as paraphrasing what you're hearing and nodding.

Clarity of Goals

To communicate productively/promote a positive atmosphere: *Goal clarity*: must understand what the group's purpose is, what goals will help the group achieve its purpose, how close the group is to achieving its goals, and whether the activities members are engaging in are helping the group move toward its goals. Tips for Goal Clarity: • Encourage the members to define them as a group. • Enable group members to prepare. • Use time productively. • Encourage yourself and your fellow members to talk regularly about the decisions you're making and the actions you're taking to ensure that these all support progress toward the goals.

Leadership Qualities

When leaders are able to adapt their styles to the needs of the groups they guide, they can enhance the productivity and satisfaction of group members in their day-to-day activities. 1. *Vision*: leaders are able to picture a new or different reality from what currently exists and consider the bigger, long-range picture of the group's or organization's future • Question the very goals themselves • Empower group members to take some risks, explore possibilities, and develop creative ideas 2. *Charisma*: vibrant, likable communicators who generate a positive image among their followers. • can motivate people and make them respond receptively to their leader's ideas 3. *Initiative*: need the initiative and energy to make these changes a real possibility • spark change not only by having a new vision • conveying that vision clearly to others • showing real passion for the work ahead, • energizing the group toward meeting the goals set forth in the vision.

Government Regulation

news media and individual citizens of a well-functioning republic need to be free to criticize their government and speak their views. Broadcasting: signals carried over the airwaves from a station transmitter to a receiver • broadcasting frequencies are limited and a public resource, the (FCC)—can regulate which private companies may broadcast over them. Cable and satellite providers Indecency: talking about or showing sexual or other bodily functions in a very lewd or vulgar way. FCC: • approving or denying mergers. • limit the control that Internet service providers have over the online traffic that flows through their services.

Effective Style of Public Speaking

•Appears "natural": opposed to forced, reading things verbatum •Reinforces (does not distract from) messages: nip slips distract people and they cannot focus •Is varied (not monotonous): Don't talk in the same tone throughout •Demonstrates immediacy What helps? • Preparation and rehearsal • Effective notes

Monochronic cultures

*treat time as a limited resource. * Example: United States, Germany, Canada, United Kingdom. Characteristics: • Use time to structure activities and focus on attending to one person or task at a time; • Value concentration and stick to schedules.

Peer relationships

Friendships that form between colleagues at an organization as a result of peer communication, communication between individuals at the same level of authority

Group Climate

Group members are affected by: • Level of the group cohesion • Behavioral Norms • Clarity of goals • Individual Differences

Technology Listening Context

Technology can be both helpful and hurtful to the listening process. Listening to messages in various technological contexts requires a lot more effort than other forms of communication. • Listen actively to the cues you do have at your disposal. • Take into account the receiver of your message. • Choose the channel that is the most effective and appropriate for the occasion

Discrimination

*Behavior toward a person or group based solely on membership in a particular group, class, or category. * Discrimination arises when attitudes about superiority of one culture lead to rules and behaviors that favor that group and harm another group.

Listening Fidelity

*The match of our thoughts and another person's thoughts and intentions through communication* • Goal of listening

Audience Analysis

*a highly systematic process of getting to know your listeners relative to the topic and the speech occasion—is a critical step in the speech preparation process*

Role Conflict

*arises in a group whenever expectations for a member's behavior are incompatible*

Individual Differences

Individual differences can create communication challenges in groups—including: • Cultural factors • Levels of *communication apprehension*: nervousness about speaking up. • *Assertiveness*: tendency to use communication openly to accomplish their goals • *Argumentativeness*: a trait characterized by advocacy for or defense of positions along with the refutation of the positions that other people take.

Situational Approach

Leader's effectiveness depends on: • Ability to know the group's needs • Ability to adapt style to fit those needs Two aspects of leadership to adapt: • *Task Orientation*: Amount of attention to the groups' tasks/duties/assignments (T.O.) • *Relational Orientation*: Amount of attention to the group members relationship/conflicts/emotions (R.O.)

Tech and Organizational Issues

1. Workplace Conflict 2.Communication Technology 3. Work-Life Balance 4. Sexual Harrassment

Feminine Orientation

*nurturing cultures—place value on relationships and quality of life* Example: Sweden, Norway, Chile, Portugal Characteristics: • Prize affection, friendliness, and social support between people

Effective Substance

The Right Message Delivered by the right source To the right audience

Delivery Cues

brief reminders about important information related to the delivery of your speech that are for your eyes alone. • Transition • Timing and Speaking rate • Volume and nonverbal behavior • Sources • Statistics • Quotations • Pronunciations • Visual Aids

Nielsen 1

main points about how Nielsen does its ratings,

Accomodation

*A process of adjusting your language and style of speaking toward the people with whom you are communicating* Accommodation is not an absolute, all-or-nothing goal: usually, it involves making small efforts to show that you respect others' cultural and communication behaviors, and you appreciate their efforts to communicate with you.

Influences on Media Context

-Technical Influence -Ability to record -Economic Influence -Messages are expensive to make/deliver -High failure rate -Need big audience traditional vs. competing -What counts as a big hit? IT DEPENDS -Networks get bigger audiences -More people aren't watching when shows first start -Current trends and "narrowcasting" -Numbers still matter but some media can be successful targeting smaller, loyal audiences (especially cable and satellite)

Source qualities

1. *Credibility*:How believable is the source? 2 Different Dimensions: • *Expertise*: Amount of perceived training, knowledge, experience of source on a given topic • *Trustworthiness*: Amount of perceived honesty, integrity of source 2. *Similarity with target*: Shared characteristics between source and the receiver EX: Same attitude, values, demographic, appearance 3.*Likability*: May include being friendly, interesting, positive attitude, seeming secure in self but empathetic towards others

Major Research Trends

1. All Powerful Media 2. Limited Effects View 3. Powerful (but subtle) effect view

Social Learning of Behaviors through Media

Social Cognitive Theory • Bendura came up with it • Learn behavior by watching others (models) Studies show: • Imitate rewarded (or unpunished) behavior this relates to the model. If model is rewarded for actions, they are more likely to imitate. • Short term effects...more likely to imitate right after seeing model's actions • Certain factors can enhance or decrease imitation: -realistic vs fantasy violence -age -how much they relate to model

Mentor-Protégé Relationships

The mentor is a respected member of the organization and serves as a role model for a less experienced individual, the protégé 1. Initiation: Get to know one another 2. Cultivation: Form a mutually beneficial bond 3. Separation: Drift apart as protege gains skills 4. Redefinition: Become Peers

Listening challenges

*1. Environmental Factors* • Loud noise • Large groups • Distractions • Temperature/Air quality *2. Hearing and Processing Challenges*: affecting our ability to hear words as well as speech tone, pitch, and range • Age • Accidents • Diseases • Stress and anxiety • Physical differences • Attention deficit disorder • Auditory processing disorder *3. Multitasking*: attention is divided among many important tasks. • Ability to focus is limited—we end up shifting our attention between various tasks, which decreases our efficiency and accuracy • Less able to switch tasks efficiently and tend to be distracted by irrelevant pieces of information *4. Boredom and Overexcitement*: something (or someone) seems overwhelmingly dull, we often wind up daydreaming about more interesting things

Message Strategies

1. *Use of evidence (supporting arguments)* • Factoral statements, stats, or study findings. Ex: personal testimonies, Sayings/quotations, Analogies or metaphors 2. *One sided or two sided arguments?*: Present your own side only, or present both and attack opposing view? *One Sided*: • Audience agrees/Leaning towards you • Not much controversy • Low Familiarity with issue *Two Sided*: • Audience Disagrees • Controversial • High Familiarity 3. *Appeals to positive emotions*: Vivid messages designed to arouse good feelings • Effective if "conditions" a response to pair the humor good feelings with the argument/product 4.*Appeals to negative emotions*: Designed to arouse unpleasant feelings 5.*The Fear Appeal*:Basic human needs to be threatened. Most effective when audience sees: • Threat is serious • Threat is likely to happen to them • Specific steps to remove threat 6. *Use of storytelling*:Telling/showing a particular story with a product as the "hero" • Using mythic stories/themes EX: David vs Goliath, brains over braun etc.. 7. *Appeals to higher order human needs*: • Social status (snob appeal) • Being normal (plain folks or anti snob) EX: Everyone's going to the party! • Consensus (Bandwagonning approach) • Appeals to broad cultural values EX: "Be the best you can be" (Individualistic) "We are in this together" (Collectivistic) 8. Evidence 9. Consensus Need

Dimensions of Culture

Culture is Learned Culture affects Communication • A Diverse Society • Mobility • Mediated Interaction • Diverse Organizations we learn culture through communication, we also use communication to express our culture.

Group Decision Making Forces

• *Cognitive forces*: thoughts, beliefs, and emotions. • *Psychological forces*: personal motives, emotions, attitudes, and values. • *Social forces*: standards for behavior that influence decision making.

Unethical listening

• Defensive Listening • Selective Listening • Self Absorbed Listening • Psuedolistening

All powerful media view

(1920-1940) Scholars argued that media act as: • "Hypodermic needle" or "Magic bullet (we have no control, the media can use power to enforce propaganda) • Effects through to be direct, immediate, uniform • but no research report, so now a long gone viewpoint

Powerful ( but subtle) effects view

(1960-present) Social Cognitive Theory • Vietnam war • Everyone has TV's

Influences on Media Content

*Government influences: -In U.S. influence on content is very limited -First amendment gives protection for speech -Still some examples of government influence: -a limited ban on BROADCAST "indecency" -only applies to broadcasting (not cable) -only applies during certain times of the day -only applies to "indecent" content -evaluates before issuing fines -rules regarding children's advertisements and educational TV -"raising eyebrows" at media industry (warning from government causes entertainment company to do something...reason behind MA, T, E labels) *Technological influence -Recording and time shifting ability (VCR, DVR, streaming, pod-casting) -Eliminates browsing (channel surfing) -Audience trend: Binge TV -Image quality and extra features (HDTV, DVD extras etc...) -At increase audience participation and selectivity *Economic influence -For mass media industry: messages are expensive to make and deliver -Amazingly high failure rate Exponentiality: only a small proportion of product (around 10 percent of TV shows, movies, albums) account for most (around 90 percent) of the revenue -Where does media revenue in the U.S. come from? -Consumer and advertising

Information Overload

*Ineffective participation in the digital world can be the result of information overload. A failure to think critically about media also hinders participation*

Need for hits

*Need "hits" (big audience) -Traditional view reaction how to get hits -Media content must be "dumbed down" -to appeal to lowest common denominator -audiences were assumed to just watch "least objectionable programming" -Entertainment messages (especially on TV) would involve no mental effort or would focus on basic human desires (sex, violence) -HOWEVER: selectivity and media diversity now challenge this view point -Competing viewpoints: competition for audiences can lead to "low" culture or "stupid" content as well as to "highbrow" or "smart" EX: TV is getting increasingly "smart" compare it to simplistic shows from the 1960's-1980's beginning in the 1990's (beginning of cable) shows get a narrative complexity -Shows with narrative complexity are more demanding, engaging audiences, has them want to rematch, analyze, even collecting -TV is getting smarter, but dumber as well (reality TV) -What counts as a hit? Big Box office/ high ratings are keys to mass media success because of how expensive they are to make. • *Exponentiality*: relatively few items bring in the income, while the rest add only a little. ~80-90% mass media revenue comes form 10-20% products made.

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

*The interaction necessary to direct an organization toward multiple sets of goals, is about more than meeting agendas and skills or getting along with moody bosses. • System of individuals: They have roles and correlation to one another • Typically organized in a formal hierarchy: Some people above others • Pursuing multiple goals: Sometimes goals conflict with each other • Within complex Communication Networks: Communication between different departments within an organization

MASS COMMUNICATION

*When there is some technology that is used to deliver messages between sources and receivers on a large scale* Traditional Mass Media Categorized: • Extremely large audiences • Sources of messages tended to be professional communicators • Mass media outlets had less interactive feedback from their audience *Media convergence*: merging of traditional mass communication with digital computing and telecommunication technologies

Managing Meetings Effectively

1. Arrive Prepared • Done the preparation we described previously. 2. Keep the Group Focused • When a member goes off on a tangent, the leader should politely interrupt by simply noting, 3. Keep an Eye on the Time • Be aware of time constraints to keep their meetings running efficiently and to respect the time pressures on the other members. • Helpful to impose time limits on certain components of the discussion. • *Nonbinding straw poll*—taking an informal vote on a decision 4. Manage Distractions • Essential that your group comes up with a policy regarding proper etiquette and behavior during its meetings, particularly in regard to cell phone use. 5. Manage Conflict • Group members deal with conflict productively, they ask clarifying questions, respectfully challenge one another's ideas, consider worst-case scenarios, and revise proposals as needed to reflect new information and insights. • *Consensus*: group solidarity in sentiment, belief, or decision—is often a better approach than making decisions by majority vote. • everyone must agree on the final decision before it can be implemented. 6. Summarize Periodically • Summarize what has happened to provide members with opportunities to confirm, correct, or clarify what has occurred so • Help ensure agreement, formation of next steps, and how members are to carry out their designated tasks. 7. Follow Up • Group members should implement their decisions and take stock of the results as well as the experience of working together.

Netiquette

Brevity valued: Sales and spam disfavored •Acronyms and in-group shortcuts common. (IMHO, ROTL, FML)

Value of Emotional Expression

In some cultures, emotional expression is associated with strength, whereas in others it is associated with weakness. Sometimes emotional expression is seen as chaos and other times as an identification of and processing of problems. Collectivistic cultures, high context often use *hyperbole*: vivid, colorful language with great emotional intensity (and often exaggeration). Individualistic cultures, low context tend toward *understatement*: language that downplays the emotional intensity or importance of events (often with euphemisms)

Shared Leadership

Leadership can be shared by a few members of the group who divvy up the power and take control of specific tasks. When the talents and powers of each group member are leveraged through shared leadership, members feel more satisfied with the group process and more motivated to perform • As a result, the group is more likely to achieve its goals!

Leading/ Managing Meetings

Meetings can be integral to group decision making, but they can often be unproductive and frustrating. *Planning Meetings Effectively:* *1. Justify the Meeting* • group leader should consider what he or she wants to accomplish and assess whether a meeting is even necessary to meet that goal. • ensure that only those whose presence is necessary in order to meet the goals or who would truly benefit from attending are included. *2. Clarify the Purpose and the Participants* • clearly articulate the goals of the meeting and the roles of everyone who is to attend. *3. Set an Agenda* • agenda for a meeting should detail the meeting's subject, goal, logistics, and schedule. • include any materials that participants would need to have read or reviewed in advance of the meeting so that everyone arrives with the appropriate background on the issue.

Media Effects

Network television: messages: broad appeal to attract the millions of viewers that the networks need in order to sell profitable advertising time. ex: The Super Bowl is such a widely popular event that the cost of advertising is extremely expensive: Traditional way for networks to capture broad audiences has been to rely on: • *low culture*: entertainment that appeals to most people's baser instincts, typified by lurid, sensational images and news stories charged with sex, violence, scandal, and abuse • programming that doesn't require a great deal of thought or cultural sophistication, New Innovation: • *Narrative Complexity*: complicated plots and connections between characters, a blurring of reality and fantasy, and time that is not always linear or chronological. The explosion of media choices has allowed audiences to become more demanding, and there is money to be made in meeting that demand. • *Narrowcasting*: process of targeting narrower, more specific audiences. Media industries can tap into smaller often passionate audiences • Shows to generate a loyal fan base. • Viewers "binge" watch • Fans can also provide reviews or discuss show content online with others. It takes a unique show to withstand this level of viewer scrutiny (Gay, 2014). Niche programming is also increasingly possible because of sources of revenue besides traditional advertising. • feature advertisers' products within the shows themselves

PUBLIC COMMUNICATION

Public speaking always includes a speaker who has a reason for speaking, an audience that gives the speaker attention, and a message that is meant to accomplish a specific purpose

Risk Avoidance

TV networks: promoting content that they believe reflects the cultural and moral values of their audiences. • extensive audience research • engage in self-censorship, • carefully monitoring their own content • eliminate messages that might offend their viewers or sponsors. Controversy can be used to increase ratings! • sensational coverage is common across news media outlets. Media industries try to minimize risk is to repeat what has already proven to work. • Sequel • Popular films derived from successful novels, graphic novels, comic book franchises, or previously made films • Copycat shows • Spin-offs

Workplace Conflict:

• *Criticism*: attacking another's personality or character rather than focusing on his or her bothersome behavior. • *Defensiveness*: a self-protective response to another's actions or accusations. • *Contempt*: communicating with truly negative intent. • *Stonewalling*: often follows contempt and involves creating physical and/ or psychological distance from people (or the larger organization) by being unresponsive to efforts to communicate

Implications of New Technology

• A benefit of converging media is that traditional media no longer serve as the sole gatekeeper for information and creative content • Media connections allow marginalized or geographically dispersed groups to build *social capital*:valuable resources like information and support that come from having connections and relationships among people • Modern media also empower individuals to become citizen journalists and to create other kinds of user-generated content, fostering greater competition in the marketplace of ideas • Digital disparities persist between those who have media access (and use it) and those who do not • Ineffective participation in the digital world can be the result of *Information overload*: failure to think critically about media also hinders participation

Work Life Balance

• Employees engage in *emotion labor*: displaying outward emotions that their organizational duties require, • take on too many responsibilities or work long hours, often resulting in *burnout*: destructive form of stress -Tech facilitates more flexible, scheduling, ability to better network -Challenge: *Context collapse* -Social media combines multiple audiences into a single context

Behavioral Component of Listening

*Responding verbally and nonverbally to let others know we have remembered and understood what they said* Showing the person that you understand and remember the information given • *Remembering*: contribute to perceptions of competence in interactions far beyond the classroom • *Responding*: feedback or reactions that let others know you've received and understood their message.

Telling

*Telling them what to do* High Task Orientation, Low Relational Orientation

Knowing your Audience

*Understand and acknowledge the expectations of your audience:* • Expectations about your speech based on the speaking situation • Their cultural norms for public speaking • Their knowledge about you as an individual or as a speaker • Situational Factors *Anticipate Audience Response:* • Consider audience motivation • Seek common ground • Determine prior exposure • Consider Disposition:

Group Qualities Influence Group Communication

*BAD= Social Loafing*: when people expand less effort in a group because they think others will pick up their slack *GOOD= Social Facilitating*: when the group members are spurring each other on 1. Group Size: numbers range from approximately 3-25 Larger groups: • A few people tend to dominate, and talk • more time is needed to reach decisions, and subgroups tend to form • Production in small groups tend to be higher, with 5-7 as the optimal • negative linear relationship 2. *Group Cohesiveness*: how close, connected, mutually liked are group members. • As cohesiveness increases, participation increases. Satisfaction as a result increase *Participation Graph*: As cohesiveness rises, participation rises *Productivity Graph*: As cohesiveness increases, Satisfaction increases. productivity has a bell curve (curvilinear relationship) 3. *Group Leadership*: What factors determine whether someone will be a good leader? • There are no qualities that make a leader "Emerging" Leader: Someone who emerges as a leader may not be a good leader. • Best leadership style depends on the situation

Understanding Group Roles

*1. Task Roles*: Concerned with the accomplishment of the group's goals—specifically, the activities that need to be carried out for the group to achieve its objectives. • An *information giver*: offers facts, beliefs, personal experience, or other input during group discussions • An *information seeker*: asks for input or clarification of ideas or opinions that members have presented • An *elaborator*: provides further clarification of points, often adding to what others have said • An *initiator*: helps the group move toward its objective by proposing solutions, presenting new ideas, or suggesting new ways of looking at an issue the group is discussing • An *administrator*: keeps the conversation on track and ensures that meetings begin and end on time *2. Social Roles*: manage how people in the group are feeling and getting along with each other. • A *harmonizer*: seeks to smooth over tension in the group by settling differences among members and working out compromises when conflict arises • A *gatekeeper*: works to ensure that each member of the group gets a chance to voice their opinions or otherwise contribute to discussions. • A *sensor*: expresses group feelings, moods, or relationships in an effort to recognize the climate and capitalize on it or modify it for the better *3. Antigroup Roles*:create problems because they serve individual members' priorities at the expense of group needs. • A *blocker*: indulges in destructive communication, including opposing or criticizing all ideas and stubbornly reintroducing an idea after the group has already rejected or bypassed it • An *avoider*: refuses to engage in the group's proceedings by expressing cynicism or nonchalance toward ideas presented or by joking or changing the subject • A *recognition seeker*: calls attention to himself or herself by boasting or by going on and on about his or her qualifications or personal achievements • A *distractor*: goes off on tangents or tells irrelevant stories • Trolls—individuals who intentionally insert irrelevant and inflammatory comments into the discussion in order to stir up controversy.

Improving Intercultural Communication

*Can lead to positive changes in your thinking, feelings, and behavior* Intercultural training generally focuses on three areas: 1. *Changing thinking*(or cognition): • Increase our knowledge about cultures and co-cultures and develop more complex ways of thinking about a culture • Reduce negative stereotypes and help individuals appreciate other points of view. 2. *Changing feelings*(or affect): • Experience greater enjoyment and less anxiety in our intercultural interactions • We feel more comfortable and positive about intercultural exchanges. 3. *Changing behavior*: • Develop better interpersonal relationships in work groups and perform our jobs better when we know what to say and not to say—do and not do • Act with greater ease and effectiveness in accomplishing goals Intercultural training: *1. Be mindful*: be aware of your behavior and others' behavior. • Intercultural sensitivity or mindfulness of behaviors that may offend others *2. Desire to Learn*: • knowledge of general interaction patterns common for a particular group can increase your awareness of other ways of communicating. • prepare you to adapt—or not adapt—as you consider the many factors influencing an intercultural interaction. *3. Overcoming Intergroup Biases*: if you have contact with people who are different from you, you have a chance to understand and appreciate them better • *Intergroup contact theory*: interaction between members of different social groups generates a possibility for more positive attitudes to emerge Combat: • *Behavioral affirmation*—seeing or hearing what we want to see or hear • *Behavioral confirmation*—when we act in a way that makes our expectations about a group come true *4. Accommodate Appropriately*: adapt your language and nonverbal behaviors •*Convergence*: speakers shift their language or nonverbal behaviors toward each other's way of communicating • to gain approval from others and to show a shared group identity •results in positive reactions • Don't *Overaccommodate*: going too far in changing your language or changing your language based on an incorrect or stereotypical notion of another group *5. Practice Your Skills*: using the language of another culture well enough to communicate effectively. • Communicators with fewer social skills have more difficulty managing the "different" interactions that intercultural situations demand Skills to Learn: 1. *Listen effectively.* • Knowing when to talk and when to be quiet (so you can listen) is crucial to intercultural encounters. 2. *Think before you speak or act.* • Take a moment to think about whether his or her behavior is a cultural difference rather than evasion or hostility. 3. *Be empathic.* • Change your perceptions and improve your understanding of the ways in which another person's culture affects his or her communication. 4. *Do the right thing.* • Stand up for someone who is being mocked for his or her race, religion, or sexual orientation. Fight for those who don't have a voice.

Polychronic cultures

*are comfortable dealing with multiple people and tasks at the same time* Example: Mexico, India, Philippines Characteristics: • Less concerned with making every moment count • Don't adhere as closely to schedules • Less likely to make or attend to appointments • Change plans often and easily

Time Orientation

*the way cultures communicate about and with time* • Monochronic • Polychronic

PERSUASION

One speaker (or panel) to an audience. (Face to face w/ a distance) -What makes speaking effective? -Style and substance are important

Personal Listening Preferences

*1. People-oriented listeners*: have relationships in mind. • Most concerned with other people's feelings • Good at assessing others' moods • Can listen without judging *2. Action-oriented listeners*: focus on tasks • Organize the information they hear into concise and relevant themes • Keep the discourse on track • Valuable in meetings and as members of teams and organizations. *3. Content-oriented listeners*: carefully evaluate what they hear • Attend to information from credible sources and critically examine the information from a variety of angles • Effective when information is complex, detailed, and challenging *4. Time-oriented listeners*: are concerned with efficiency • Prefer time limitations on the listening interaction • Favor clear, pertinent information • Little patience for speakers who talk too much or wander off topic ~40% people score high on two or more listening styles • best listeners adapt their listening styles to different situations

SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION

*3 or more people interacting towards a common goal(s) Working/communicating as a group*

Enthnocentrism

*A belief in the superiority of your own culture or group and a tendency to view other cultures through the lens of your own* Ethnocentrism can make communication biased: we tend to communicate from the perspective of our own group without acknowledging other perspectives.

Defensive Listening

*Arguing with the speaker (sometimes with aggression) without fully listening to the message* Not Productive: Defensive Responses > Defensive Comments Tips to Avoid Defensive Listening: • Hear the speaker out • Consider the speaker's motivations • Use nonverbal communication • Provide calm feedback

Cultivation of Views about Reality

*Argument is that heavy TV leads to beliefs that match the "TV reality"* (violent, scary world) (Late 60's early 70's) • Amount of TV watched, not about the specific things that were watched Studies show: • TV viewing is RELATED to beliefs (more TV, more fear of violence) used surveys • But not clear evidence that TV causes this • Are people who are scared of the outside world just staying in and watching more TV, or are people scared because of how much TV they watch?

Tuckman's Model of Group Development

*As groups develop, they progress through five stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. * Stages are linear: *1. Forming*: group members try to figure out who will be in charge and what the group's goals will be. • members learn more about one another and the group's objectives. *2. Storming*: begin experiencing conflicts over issues such as who will lead the group and what roles members will play. • Begin to disagree on goals, tasks, and cliques, and other competitive divisions may even begin to form *3. Norming*: norms emerge among members that govern expected behavior. Norms: recurring patterns of behavior or thinking that come to be accepted in a group as the "usual" way of doing things • Group roles also solidify based on individual member strengths, and a leader may emerge. • Group identity grows stronger as members realize the importance of their roles within the group and the need to cooperate to accomplish goals. *4. Performing*: members combine their skills and knowledge to work toward the group's goals and overcome hurdles. • High levels of interdependence, motivation, and clarity in delegation of team member tasks. *5. Adjourning*: group members reflect on their accomplishments and failures as well as determine whether the group will disassemble or take on another project. • Termination Ritual: Celebrate their achievements with a final get-together

Group Cohesiveness

*Cohesion is the degree to which group members bond, like each other, and consider themselves to be one entity.* *What does Group Cohesion look like?* • members feel satisfaction and fulfillment • identify with the purposes of the group • constructive argumentation • retain members *Increasing cohesion:* • Avoid dominating other group members. • Stay focused on the tasks the group must accomplish. • Be friendly. • Show sensitivity to and respect for other members. • Demonstrate that you value others' opinions. • Cooperate with other members rather than compete with them. *Advantages:* • generates positive group climate • foster optimism and confidence in the face of obstacles. • minimize problems, eliminate barriers, and cope well with crises • perform better than noncohesive groups on decision-making tasks *Disadvantages:* • Too much cohesion can actually cause the group to be unproductive • ail to question or criticize each other's knowledge or ideas, even if they are incorrect.

Communication Technology

*Facilitating *collaboration* -The ride of the "virtual organization" via communication networks -Enterprise social media -Web based platforms like Facebook, but just for the organization • enabled easier communication • challenge of figuring out which channel to use based on situational and relational contexts • *media richness*: degree to which a particular channel is communicative • increased *workplace surveillance*: monitoring of employees to see how they're using e-mail, the Internet, and instant messaging

Passive Listeners

*Failure to select, attend, understand, remember, and respond; they may misinterpret messages, ignore them altogether, or need information and instructions repeated for them.* • regarded as less competent

Self Absorbed Listening

*Hear only the information that they find useful for achieving their own specific goals.* Examples: • conflict situations *Monopolistic listening*: listening to control the communication interaction. *Attacking*: respond to someone else's message with negative evaluations *Ambushing*: listens specifically to find weaknesses in others—things they're sensitive about—and pulls those weaknesses out at strategic or embarrassing times. • More strategic.

Participating

*Leader is not showing how to do anything helping conflict* Low Task Orientation, High Relational Orientation

Delegating

*Letting them do what they do* Low Task Orientation, Low Relational Orientation

Listening Goals

"Competent listening doesn't happen easily" • *Informational Listening* • *Critical Listening* • *Empathetic Listening* • *Appreciative Listening*

Limited Effects View

(1940-present) Researchers noticed not everyone is affected and not in the same way Audience is active: • selective exposure & attention choose/interpret media to fit/reinforce existing attitudes • use media to serve needs see "uses & gratifications" in reading study: after a romantic breakup • teen girls picked saddest song to wallow • teen boys picked angriest song to express

Approaches to Managing Organizations

*1. Classical Management Approach*: likens organizations to machines with a focus on maximizing efficiency. • Reached its peak during the Industrial Revolution • communication flows from the top (management) down to the bottom (the lowest-level workers) Two Central Ideas: • Division of Labor: assumption that each part of an organization (and each person involved) must carry out a specialized task in order for the organization to run smoothly. • Favor Hierarchy: the layers of power and authority in an organization. *2. Human Relations Approach*: considers the human needs of organizational members (enjoying interpersonal relationships, sharing ideas with others, feeling like a member of a group, and so on). • Managers express more interest in their employees • Provide incentives for good work and emphasize a greater sense of belonging to a larger cause or purpose. • Organizational members are also encouraged to interact with each other on a more personal level *3. Human Resources Approach*: considers employees as assets to the organization who can be fulfilled by participating and contributing useful ideas • Given more responsibility and autonomy to achieve their own goals, they perform better and remain motivated, which benefits both the employees and the organization *4. The Systems Approach*: views an organization as a unique whole made up of important members who have interdependent relationships within their particular environment • like an ecosystem: the members of an organization, as well as outside forces in the environment: all affect each other and the organization as a whole. • Openness: An organization's awareness of its own imbalances and problems. • Adaptability: The ability to adjust

Value of Effective Listening

*Listening affects more than your ability to communicate: it enables you to live a productive, satisfying, and healthy life!* *1. Helps your Career* • Established professionals need to listen to others, make others feel heard, and respond effectively to them • Effective listening is related to job satisfaction, performance, and achievement of the organization's goals • Employees who are good listeners are seen as alert, confident, mature, and judicious—qualities that result in professional rewards like promotions and pay raises. *2. Saves Time and Money* • Save time by acting quickly and accurately on information presented to them. • Repeated or duplicated tasks, missed opportunities, lost clients, botched orders, misunderstood instructions, and forgotten appointments can cost companies money—as can failing to listen to customers. *3. Creates Opportunities* • Good listeners don't just avoid mistakes; they also find opportunities that others might miss. *4. Strengthens Relationships* • In new relationships, failure to listen competently to learn more about each other usually results in less attraction and more negative emotions • Can significantly reduce your partner's stress in a challenging situation by letting him or her talk through difficult events while you listen actively • When a friend verbally "ruminates"—talks over and over again about the same issues—listening supportively can help the person feel more satisfied with the friendship *5. Accomplishes your goals* • Listen for information, ideas, emotions, or enjoyment. • Each listening situation involves achieving different types of goals • You listen to comprehend, to evaluate, to communicate empathy, and to appreciate

Appreciative Listening

*Listening for enjoyment of what is being presented* Strategy: • Remove physical and time distractions • Know more about originator (author, artist, composer) • Explore new appreciative listening opportunities Examples of Use: • Listening to music • Poetry • Narrations • Comedy routines • Plays • Movies • Television shows Benefits: • Can help relieve stress • Unclutter the mind • Refresh our senses

Critical Listening

*Listening to judge, analyze, or evaluate* "Evaluative listening" Strategy: • Determine speaker's goal • Evaluate source of message • Question logic, reasoning, and evidence of message "Valuable when you cannot take a message at face value" Critical thinking is a necessary component of critical listening. Assess the speaker's • Motivation • Credibility • Accuracy • Ethics Examples of use: • Considering a big financial purchase *Improve Your Critical Listening Abilities*: • Determine the thesis or main point of the speaker's message. (Watch for key words and phrases ) • Focus your efforts. • Concentrate and avoid distractions. • Decode nonverbal cues: communicates volumes of information. • Use your memory. (note-taking can help jog your memory) (make mental associations with words).

Empathetic Listening

*Listening to provide therapy, comfort, and sympathy* Strategy: • Focus on speaker's perspective • Give supportive feedback • Show caring • Demonstrate patience • Avoid judgment • Focus on speaker's goal *Paraphrasing*: guessing at feelings and rephrasing (not repeating) what you think the speaker has said. *DO NOT overdo paraphrasing!!* • conversation becomes awkward • person may feel ridiculed *Empathic listening*: recognizes and elaborates on others' feelings, giving them some degree of legitimacy without suggesting an answer or solution • Empathic listening *requires openness, sensitivity, and caring—and the display of nonverbal immediacy behaviors* Examples of use: • Provide emotional support for someone in need of comfort when tragedy or disappointment strikes • Medical situations:Doctors, nurses, and other health care providers

Informational Listening

*Listening to understand, learn, realize, or recognize* "Comprehensive Listening" Strategy: • Listen for main ideas or details • Take speaker's perspective • Use memory effectively Questioning Techniques are Important! Examples of Use: • Student: understand concepts and information your instructors are presenting to you • Directions • Providing instructions • Telling a story

Active Listerners

*Motivated listeners choose to select, attend, understand, remember, and respond*

Group Norms

*Norms within the group: imposed by members on themselves and each other; they may not be stated outwardly, but they direct the behavior of the group as a whole and affect the conduct of individual members* Some norms have a negative impact on communication. • one member dominates the conversation or allows members to dismiss an idea before discussing its pros and cons. • difficulty generating enough diverse ideas to make informed decisions. *Modify Norms:* 1. Express your loyalty and dedication to the group 2. Cite specific examples of the behavior you find harmful to the group's effectiveness 3. Ask other members for their opinions about the problem norm you've identified. AFTER productive discussion: • May decide to maintain the norm • May change it under specific conditions • Abandon norm

Communication Differentiates Across Cultures

*Politeness* • Politeness is learned • Politeness is different in different cultures: *Proxemics*: Interpersonal space and distance • Japanese people stand further away when they speak. • Americans stand somewhat in the middle when they speak • Greek culture stand really close to each other when they speak *Oculesic Behaviors*: Eye Gaze • Some cultures you should not gaze, especially if disagreeing, it is looked at as disrespectful. *Chronemics*: Time • Monochronic Cultures • Polychronic Cultures *Beliefs about talk vs silence* • Many other cultures only talk after they are comfortable • Many western cultures have an Aversion to silence (they hate it)

Pseudolistening

*Pretending to listen by nodding or saying "uh-huh" when you're really not paying attention at all* Benefits: • Keep up a polite appearance of listening Weaknesses: • Miss important information • Offend your communication partner and damage the relationship • Neglect tasks that we have implied we would complete • Fail to meet others' needs

Demographics

*Quantifiable Social Categories of Groups of People* What sex, age, income level, race etc...are you marketing to? • *Psychographics*: their psychological qualities such as attitudes, values, lifestyles, behaviors, and interests

Personal Identity

*Unique individual personality*

Group Leadership Styles

1. *Directive Leader*: focuses on the group's tasks and controls the group's communication by conveying specific instructions to members. • chart next steps in the group's tasks • clarify the group's goals, plans, and desired outcomes Best used: • when members are unsure of what's expected of them or how to carry out their responsibilities. 2. *Supportive leader*: attends to group members' emotional and relational needs. • Stress the importance of positive relationships in the group • Remind members of the group's importance • Express appreciation for members' talents and work ethic. Best Used: • When members feel frustrated with their task or with each other. 3. *Participative leader*: views group members as equals, welcomes their opinions, summarizes points that have been raised, and identifies problems that need discussion rather than dictating solutions. • Give some assistance and support to group members • Guide and facilitate group discussion • Step in when needed Best Used: • when group members are competent and motivated to take on their tasks but also benefit from their leader's involvement and feedback. 4.*Laissez-Faire leader*: gives up some degree of power or control and gives that power to team members. Best Used: • group to handle their own responsibilities, does not take part in the group's discussions or work efforts, and provides feedback only when asked. 5.*Achievement Oriented*: leader sets challenging goals and communicates high expectations and standards to members. • Setting lofty goals • Encourage outside-thebox thinking • Compare the group with other high-performing groups • Keep members focused on tangible outcomes Best Used: • when group members are highly skilled and are eager to produce great accomplishments.

Understanding Intergroup Biases

1. *Individuation vs Subtyping* • Individuation: Focusing on individual as an outlier EX: Officer Smith is different from the other cops, he's cool • Subtyping: Instead of singling out an individual, you take out a specific type. EX: Office Smith is just a "school cop" and school cops are cool. 2. *Behavioral "Affirmation" and "Confirmation"* • Affirmations: Selectively noticing things so they match their stereotypes • Confirmation: Actively doing things to elicit a response to fit a stereotype 3. *Attributional Biases* • For in-group members: (+)= association with internal factors (-)= association with external factors • For out-group members: (-)= association with internal factors (+)= association with external factors

Listening process

1. Affective Component 2. Cognitive Component 3. Behavioral Component

Communication Variations across Cultures

1. High/Low Context Cultures 2. Collectivist/Individualist Orientations 3. Comfort with Uncertainty 4. Masculine/Feminine Orientation 5. Approaches to Power Distance 6. Time Orientation 7. Value of Emotional Expression

Five Sources of Power

1.*Legitimate power*: comes from an individual's role or title. Ex: The president, supervisor at work, coach 2.*Coercive power*: stems from a person's ability to threaten or harm others. Ex: harsh dictator, a boss who threatens to dock or demote employees if they step out of line 3.*Reward power*: derives from an individual's capacity to provide rewards. Ex: boss might offer all the people in your department a paid day off if they work late three nights in a row on an important project. 4.*Expert power*: comes from the information or knowledge that a leader possesses. 5.*Referent power*: stems from the admiration, respect, or affection that followers have for a leader. Ex: popular kids