Comparative politics ID terms
"Market preserving federalism"
-Capitalism allows governments to provide property rights to individuals, but they can also take them away Thus, federalism, involving two levels of government, can act as a "check" on each other so that this doesn't happen (this veto power can make the market efficient) -However, evidence doesn't show that federalism prevents the state from freezing assets, and corruption tends to be higher -Federalism doesn't affect inflation rates, but it tends to stabilize the current rate. This is significant in demonstrating the effect that veto players have on stability and how they act as a check and balance.
reinforcing cleavages VS. cross-cutting cleavages
-Cross-Cutting cleavages are uncorrelated -do not reinforce party formation -Reinforcing cleavages have correlated attributes. for example, one's region can lead to accurate prediction of their language. -facilitate party formation. If a country is divided by regional area (North vs South) and by religion (Christians vs Muslims) then a reinforcing cleavage would be one in which all northerns are christians and all southerners are muslim. However, a cross cutting cleavage would occur if the North was divided between Muslims and Christians and the South similarly had Christians and Muslims.
Electoral parties VS. legislative parties
-In the effective number of ELECTORAL parties, we use the "vote share" to weigh each party. This is the measure of the number of parties that win VOTES -In the effective number of LEGISLATIVE parties, we use the "set share" to weigh each party. This is the measure of the number of parties that win SEATS
Cabinet instability VS. democratic instability
-Legislative fragmentation increases likelihood of cabinet instability in parliaments -(immobilism): when government coalitions are so weak and unstable that they are incapable of reaching an agreement on new policy -more chance of there being a coalition government in a multiparty parliamentary system -deadlock is less likely because the prime minister is obliged to form a cabinet of a coalition of parties that commands a legislative majority -there are legal pathways to remove the cabinet (vote of confidence) -legislative fragmentation-->deadlock->democratic instability (presidentialism) -Legislative fragmentation is more likely to lead to legislative deadlock in a presidential regime. -when the legislature and the president are of two different parties (divided government) it increases chances of deadlock
Cube law*
-Method to calculate how votes translate into seats -Generally used in Single Member Plurality systems. -the large parties (top 2) receive the most seats relative to their vote share, leading to disproportionality. -The law cubes the ratio of votes so that ultimately larger parties receive a bonus while small parties are penalized. (such as Duverger's Law states)
Connected coalition*
-Only contains parties that are located next to each other on the ideological spectrum Example: The Danish government elected in 2007 is a connected, centre-right coalition of the Liberal Party, the Danish People's Party and the Conservative Party. The 2010 UK coalition between the Liberal Democrats and the Conservatives can be classified as a Minimum Winning Coalition and may also be argued to be a Connected Coalition.
Policy-seeking politicians VS. office-seeking politicians
-Policy seeking: wants to secure ministerial portfolios in order to influence policy and -office seeking is caring more about electoral rules that influence the seat share and likelihood of being in the government. Office seekers will want to secure as many ministerial portfolios as possible -intertwines with Gamson's law because PM has to give portfolios proportional to legislative majority. This causes politicians to be forced to act like they care about both policy and office. -They are always asking how much extra office they should give up to get policy, or how much policy they should give up to get more office.
Tiebout sorting ("voting with one's feet") *
-Subnational governments have pressure to perform well, because people can "vote with their feet" by moving to better regions. -Tiebout says in a country with many states, people will move to better regions that represent their policy preferences - this will cause the federal system to lead to interstate competition, eventually leading to the improvement of all states
Party system
-based on the number and size of the policies they contain (and on cleavages, electoral systems, and electoral rules) - this determines whether a country supports multiple parties (mostly PR governments) ,or a 2 party system (mostly majoritarian)
Minority government
-does not command a majority of legislative seats -The govt can only exist as long as the opposition chooses not to bring it down. There has to be an implicit majority that supports it. Either some nongovernmental parties will publicly state that they will sustain the govt against votes to overthrow it but do not want to be in the cabinet, or the govt will build legislative majorities on an ad hoc basis - i.e. for each legislation it wants to pass. -Minority govts are more likely in countries where non-govt opposition parties have a strong say over policy. They are less likely in countries that use an investiture vote.
Police patrol oversight VS. fire alarm oversight
-principles directly and actively monitor the actions of their agents -the principal does not monitor their agent themselves but relies on information from others to learn about what the agent is doing
Strategic (psychological) VS. mechanical effect of SMDP electoral rules
-strategic voting -strategic entry -punishes small parties and rewards large parties -Duverger's law: SMDP systems encourage two-party systems -two biggest parties hold most or all of the seats (opting out small parties)
Welfare state (write in notes)
-the state plays a key role in the protection and promotion of the social and economic well-being of its citizens (social safety net) -redistribution: redistributes wealth. -It can be defined by the ideologies of people (luck vs. lazy), the partisanship of the government (left or right), and a country's economic development and openness to trade (social safety net - vulnerability). -As countries get wealthier, there is more pressure for a larger welfare state.
Two-party system VS. multiparty system
-the two party system is a result of SMDP electoral rules and causes strategic voting+entry. -policy remains the same because the two parties cannot reach a consensus on policy -more than two parties have a realistic chance of holding power, either separately or as part of a coalition -more political instability because many parties are fighting for power
"Selecting on the dependent variable" **
-we select cases for study because they share the same outcome we want to explain -When conducting research about a specific outcome you only look at one explanation that may overshadow other more plausible causes. -Ex: claiming that wealthy countries are democracies, looking only at countries that are democracies. You also have to look at countries that are not democracies, to falsify the claim that undemocratic countries can also be wealthy -To be a scientific statement, we must falsify generalizations in order to make them more consistent
Coalition government
A coalition government is a cabinet of a parliamentary government in which multiple political parties band together, since they cannot achieve a majority on their own. -this happens in proportional electoral systems when small parties band together to try to pass the quota (the # of votes needed to get seats) -coalitions are unstable because parties can pull their support at any time. -policy stability because it takes effort to implement it and to reverse policy.
Formateur*
A formateur is a politician who is appointed by the head of state to lead the formation of a coalition government, after either a general election or the collapse of a previous government. The role of the formateur is especially important in the politics of Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Italy, Israel, and the Czech Republic.
Gamson's Law*
Cabinet portfolios will be distributed among government parties in strict proportion to the number of seat that each party contributes to the government legislative seat total in parliament
French Fourth Republic*
Characterized by high levels of immobilism as well as government instability in 12 years the republic witnessed 24 governments under 16 prime ministers. The French government was unable to deal with its topical colonial issues, and a PR system produced a fragmented and polarized. However it was also an example of how cabinet instability in parliamentary democracies does not imply ministerial instability because there was significant continuity of parties that composed the cabinet.
Residual clause**
Clause inlcuded in some federal rule which allows the rule to apply to situations not expicitly listed in rule -for example, the "Necessary and Proper" clause of the consitution, which delegates powers to subnational governments (federalism)
Congruent federalism VS. incongruent federalism
Congruent federalism is when territorial units of a federal state share a similar demographic (ethnic, linguistic, religious) makeup with one another and reflect the country as a whole. Incongruent federalism is when the demographic makeup of territorial units differs among the units and the country as a whole.
Minimal winning coalition*
Contains the smallest number of parties which together can secure a parliamentary majority (office-seeking behavior) -do not have to split power with as many other parties. Parties that hold more seats do not have to be tied to other parties to get their legislation to pass. Example: a coalition between Fianna Fáil and the Progressive Democrats. 83 seats are needed for a majority, Fianna Fáil had 77 and the Progressive Democrats had 6, together the coalition reached 83 seats - the minimum number needed for a majority coalition
Disproportionality
Disproportionality is the difference between the number of votes and the number of seats -this is common in majoritarian systems -winning a majority of the seats even if that party didn't win the majority of the votes
Confucian culture*
Explanations for political phenomena rooted in culture are based on myths -culture is always changing, thus East Asia's booming economy was not always the fact because it was once declining. -economic crisis, war, and political leadership can all change culture Culture is multifaceted and you can pick and choose the aspects that fit with what you want to explain some political phenomena -the reason East Asia succeeded economically was due to the "Confucian values". Confucianism was used as an explanation as to why the East Asia had a weak economy, but also as to why it had a successful economy This is a specific example of the error of attributing culture to success in politics and the economy because it was not always the case throughout time.
Proportional representation (PR) VS. single member district plurality (SMDP)
F
Gerrymandering
Gerrymandering is the redrawing of district lines (of an electoral constituency) to favor one party over the other. Gerrymandering is made possible by the single member plurality system. -winning more constituencies favors you in an SMP system
Immobilism*
Immobilism is a situation in which government coalitions are so weak and unstable that they are incapable of reaching an agreement on new policy -proportional electoral systems lead to immobilism -governments typically have to choose between immobility (doing nothing and remaining in power) or attempting to push forward with their legislative program (possibly resulting in their removal from office)
Closed party list PR Vs. open party list PR
In a closed list PR system, the order of candidates elected is determined by the party, and voters are unable to express a preference for a particular candidate (the ballots do not contain the names of individual candidates) -If a party wins 4 seats in a district, then the top 4 candidates in that party's list get seats. In an open party list PR system, voters can indicate not just their preferred party but also their favored candidate within that party -this can generate internal party fighting -cultivates a personal vote rather than a party vote -The only other proportional electoral system that does not use party list is the single transferable vote (STV)
Independent variable VS. dependent variable**
Independent: what we think will explain or determine the value of the dependent variable (countries in which golf is popular / "golf nation" -- $$) Dependent: the outcome or thing we are trying to explain (certain countries not fighting wars with one another) **Correlation between variables doesn't always mean causation -- Green's Peace
Congruent bicameralism VS. incongruent bicameralism
Level of congruence depends on how the membership of the two chambers is selected and whether they represent the same set of citizens. Congruent bicameralism is when the two legislative chambers have similar political composition. Incongruent bicameralism is when the two chambers differ in political composition. (Ex: Senate vs. House) -For example, the lower chamber represents all citizens equally. But the upper chamber represents citizens of different subnational geographic units, leading to MALAPPORTIONMENT - malapportionemnt is when the distribution of political representation between constituencies is based on the size of each constituency's population. The votes of some citizens weigh more than the votes of others because some states are overrepresented since their population was too small in comparison to other states. The government gives small states more power to create "equality in representation". EX: The Senate
Malapportionment
Malapportionment is when the distribution of political representation between constituencies is NOT based on the size of each constituency's population. -The votes of some citizens weigh more than the votes of others because some states are overrepresented (since their population was too small in comparison to other states). -The government gives small states more power to create "equality in representation". EX: The Senate This relates to bicameralism as a whole and whether the system is congruent or incongruent (malapportioned) which can then determine if the system is weak
Mill's methods of difference and agreement
Mill's method is the comparative method. It's the systematic search for the necessary and sufficient causes of political phenomena Method of Agreement: compares cases that "agree" in regard to the phenomena to be explained -necessary condition: a circumstance in whose absence phenomenon cannot occur (wealth) -sufficient condition: a circumstance in whose presence the phenomenon must occur Relates: It is what the whole foundation of comparative politics relies upon. For ex, wealth is NOT a sufficient condition for democracy, but it is a necessary condition. - if wealth is sufficient for democracies, you would look for undemocratic wealthy states. Method of Difference: compares cases that "differ" in regard to the phenomena to be explained (Mexico is wealthy and not a democracy, so wealth is not sufficient for Mexico but it may be necessary) <--wealth is sufficient in this case
Left wing govt VS. right wing govt**
Proportional electoral systems encourage the election of left-wing governments -in favor of workers' rights (social equality) -high tax rates -luck determines wealth(?) Majoritarian electoral systems encourage the election of right-wing governments -protectors of free markets and democracy - -low tax rates -Comes from the French National Assembly based on where the political ideologies sat in the room -Significant because in issues such as those of the welfare state, ideology of the government can determine how much they will spend on things like social programs
Scientific method
Question- from observation made about the universe (EX: Green's Peace -- countries where majority of the population plays golf do not fight wars against each other) Theory- to describe set of logically consistent statements to explain the observation. Theories can be models and explanations. A theory also assumes that the phenomena observed occurs as a recurring process Implications/ hypothesis- Deduce implications from model outside of the observation in the interest of FALSIFICATION. Observe the world- test hypothesis and its implications to falsify, compare to other models. Evaluation.
Strategic voting
Strategic voting is when someone votes for a candidate that is more likely to win than their 1st preference candidate because if their 1st preference loses they are "wasting" their vote
Symmetric bicameralism VS. asymmetric bicameralism
Symmetric bicameralism is when the two legislative chambers have equal or near equal constitutional power. (Senate+House) -extremely rare, the U.S. has this -the upper house is an important political actor since it enjoys similar constitutional powers to the lower house Asymmetric bicameralism is when the two legislative chambers have unequal constitutional powers (the lower house has more power) -the upper chamber is unlikely to be an important political actor since its constitutional powers are extremely weak The degree of symmetry is related to how the members of the upper chamber are selected -upper chambers are more likely to have coequal power with the lower house when citizens play a direct role in electing upper chamber representatives
Symmetric federalism VS. asymmetric federalism
Symmetric federalism is when territorial units of a federal state possess equal powers relative to the central government Asymmetric federalism is when some territorial units enjoy more extensive powers than others relative to the central government -asymmetries satisfy the different needs and demands that arise from demographic differences between the units -Quebec has more extensive powers in Canada because of the social cleavages (they are French-speaking) as well as other differences
alternative vote (AV) electoral system
The AV electoral system an "absolute majority" majoritarian system. Candidates cannot win without obtaining a majority of the votes. It's a candidate-centered preferential voting system used in single-member districts where voters rank order the candidates in order of preference on the ballot, and votes given to a losing candidate are redistributed. There is less on an incentive for voters to engage in strategic voting because their vote isn't wasted if the candidate they rank #1 loses, since their vote will transfer to their 2nd preference.
Constructive vote of no confidence
The constructive vote of no confidence requires that those who oppose the government (the legislative majority) must indicate who will replace the government if the incumbent is removed -the constructive vote of no confidence reduces government instability, since the government will be replaced promptly instead of having no one hold office.
upper house VS. lower house
The upper house is based on territory in a bicameral legislature. -more malapportioned (equal # of rep.) -In a presidential system it holds equal power to the lower house, while in a parliamentary system it holds less power than the lower house. -An example is the U.S Senate or House of Lords. The lower house is based on population and is therefore more proportional to the population. The lower house is popularly elected, and each vote almost always carries equal weight. This is significant in relation to federalism, representing individuals vs. regions, and if the state values tradition and the opinion of the upper class in the upper house
Effective number of parties
a measure that captures both the number and size of parties. It is used to count each political party that wins votes/seats AND also attaches a weight that is related to the share of votes/seats that it wins. -In the effective number of ELECTORAL parties, we use the "vote share" to weigh each party. This is the measure of the number of parties that win VOTES -In the effective number of LEGISLATIVE parties, we use the "set share" to weigh each party. This is the measure of the number of parties that win SEATS -this is important to narrow down the amount of "actual parties" or extremist parties. -- Determines how party systems are categorized. The effective number of parties can be used to classify democracies as having two-party or multiparty systems.
Endogenous election timing
allows leaders to schedule elections when the "time is right" -when the economy is high (political surfing) -the government manipulates economy to create a short-time high (political business cycle) -the government has more information about the economy than the voter, or principal (signaling)
veto players
an individual or collective group whose agreement is necessary for a change in the political status quo. federalism, bicameralism, and constitutionalism are all different types of veto players institutions such as political parties or legislatures that place hurdles in the way of individuals changing the status quo are veto players -Institutional veto players are mandated by institutions such as the Constitution. An example of this is the President's veto power. -A partisan veto player is informal and generated by politics, such as the majority in Congress policies that require legislative approval will change slowly with many veto players. -With fewer veto players, there are quicker fiscal changes and the government can tackle critical issues quicker. -With many veto players, there is more policy stability, smaller shifts in policy, and less variation in the size of shifts.
unified VS. single-party minority VS. multiparty majority VS. multiparty minority governments *
f
Pre-electoral coalitions VS. government coalitions *
form a coalition with a party/parties before an election in hopes of governing together afterward if they gain office -this usually happens because single parties are unable to command a majority of support in the legislature, especially in an SMDP -small parties have to form coalitions competing separately and hope to form a government coalition after the election
vote of no confidence
is initiated by the legislature on whether the government should remain in office -if a majority of legislators vote against it, the government must resign can increase government instability because legislatures are always implementing votes of no confidence -to avoid this, the constructive vote of no confidence can be used -this discourages legislatures from using the vote of no confidence so much
Partisan model of macroeconomic policy
left-wing parties represent low-income individuals while right-wing parties represent high-income individuals. -thus, left-wing politicians will generally advocate for greater welfare spending and redistribution -right-wing politicians detest redistribution. -changes in partisan control of the government will lead to changes in fiscal policy. There are other implications of fiscal policy, including the attitudes toward the poor that present themselves in different nations (luck or laziness).
Prime Minister's Question Time
members of Parliament (MPs) get to keep the government accountable by asking for information. -The PM can ask staff to develop an answer for one question ahead of time, but another can be asked without giving the PM prep time. -regularly used to criticize the government. -This reflects legislative responsibility: the head of government must be accountable to the legislature
Meltzer-Richard Model
predicts that the greater the income inequality (when there's a small number of citizens at the top and a large number of citizens at the bottom of the income scale), the greater the demands from citizens for a large tax and transfer system. -This shows why preferences over tax rates will be a function of a voter's income, since those with low incomes want higher taxes and those with high incomes want lower taxes. -assumes that the median voter (with the median income) will dictate fiscal policy -The state will be large when income inequality is high since there are many more poor voters than rich voters. -Further, fiscal activity should be larger in countries with high levels of income inequality.
Residual claimant ****
refers to the economic agent who has the sole remaining claim on an organization's net cash flows bureaucratic oversight when a bureaucrat is not used at an agent in a principal-agent relationship, rather, privatization is used and an outside firm is used.
Duverger's law
single-member district plurality systems (SMPD) encourage two-party systems -Why?: =Because of the "winner-take-all-system". The candidate or party that receives the most votes wins most or all of the seats. =because of "strategic voting". people drop their support of the party/candidate they want to be elected (Ex: third party) for one of the top two parties/candidates that have a "realistic chance of winning" =because of disproportionality. These SMDP systems frequently produce outcomes in which the largest party wins a majority of the legislative seats even if they don't win a majority of the votes. Thus, small parties are left without any representation in the legislature because they won no seats.
Moral hazard *
the agent has the opportunity to take actions that are hidden from the principal and possibly act in a way that is not in principal's best interest. (part of the principal-agent problem)
Principal-agent problem
the difficulties that arise when a principal delegated authority to an agent who potentially has different goals from the principal and cannot be perfectly monitored. -can lead to averse selection or moral hazard
Effective (natural) threshold VS. formal threshold
the minimum level of support (% of votes) a party needs to obtain legislative representation -The effective (natural) threshold is a mathematical by-product (ex: district magnitude) of the electoral system -The formal threshold is legally imposed, or explicitly written into electoral law. Formal thresholds always increase the disproportionality of an electoral system. These thresholds attempt to prevent very small parties from gaining representation. -This is good in some aspect. If this threshold is combined with APPARENTMENT, then small extremist parties are prevented from gaining representation.
District magnitude
the number of seats granted to each district (based off # of representatives elected) Electoral systems are more proportional when the district magnitude is large, as smaller parties are much more likely to win seats. Electoral outcome is likely to be disproportional whenever district magnitude is small. * the most important factor influencing proportionality is district magnitude because that determines whether small parties are able to win representation in proportion to their size.
Wanger's law***
the size of government increases as countries become wealthier (or more industrialized)
Federalism VS. devolution
when sovereignty is constitutionally split between at least two territorial levels, so that independent government units at each level have final authority in at least one policy realm Devolution (decentralization) is the extent to which actual policymaking power lies with the central or regional governments. -power given to the subunits -the greater the share of all tax revenues going to the central government, the less decentralized the state (since governments need tax revenue to implement policies) Federalism is a constitutional issue, devolution is a budgetary issue.
Spatial voting model *
when voters cast their vote based on the party/candidate that best represents their policy ideals -because of this, leftist and rightist parties will attempt to get the centrist voters by making broad appeals that will make them vote for the left or right candidate
