Conservation Biology Final
Gap analysis generally consists of the following steps:
Data are compiled describing the presence and distribution of species, ecosystems, and physical features of the region, which are sometimes referred to as conservation units. Information on human densities and economic factors can also be included. Conservation and social goals are identified, such as the amount of area to be protected for each ecosystem, the number of individuals of rare species to be protected, or the desired balance between wilderness and mixed resource management. Existing conservation areas are reviewed to determine what is protected already and what is not (known as "identifying gaps in coverage"). Additional areas are identified to help meet the conservation goals ("filling the gaps"). These additional areas are reviewed in more detail and, if appropriate and practical, protected in some way (often by being directly purchased or designated as national parks). Management plans are then developed and implemented. The new protected areas are monitored to determine whether they are meeting their stated goals. If not, the management plan can be changed or, possibly, additional areas can be acquired to meet the goals.
what are demographic studies and examples
Demographic studies provide data on the numbers, ages, sexes, conditions, and locations of individuals within a population. These data indicate whether a population is stable, increasing, or declining and are the basis for statistical models used to predict the future of a species. ornithologists band birds' legs, mammalogists often attach tags to animals' ears, and botanists nail aluminum tags to trees.
Developing urban places where people and biodiversity can coexist has been termed reconciliation ecology
Developing urban places where people and biodiversity can coexist has been termed reconciliation ecology
Several types of natural history and population biology information are important to conservation biology:
Environment Distribution Biotic interactions Morphology Physiology Phenology Demography Behavior Genetics Interactions with humans
Establishing habitat corridors can potentially transform a set of isolated protected areas into a linked network with populations interacting as a metapopulation
Establishing habitat corridors can potentially transform a set of isolated protected areas into a linked network with populations interacting as a metapopulation
According to the World Resources Institute preserving ecosystems involves the following:
Establishing individual protected areas Creating networks of protected areas Managing those areas effectively Implementing conservation measures outside the protected areas Restoring biological communities in degraded habitats
Even ecosystems that are managed primarily for the production of natural resources can retain considerable biodiversity, and they are important to the success of conservation efforts.
Even ecosystems that are managed primarily for the production of natural resources can retain considerable biodiversity, and they are important to the success of conservation efforts.
umbrella species are
Flagship and indicator species are also known as umbrella species because protecting them automatically protects other species and aspects of biodiversity.
Gap analysis
Gap analysis compares biodiversity priorities with existing and proposed protected areas
Laboratory analysis of biological material types
Genetic monitoring uses markers in DNA or proteins to detect the presence of, estimate the abundance of, and even detect rates of inbreeding or immigration among populations Isotope analysis
Principles for successful restoration:
Global contribution Broad engagement and information sharing Benefits to nature and people Measurable and achievable goals Addressing causes of degradation Monitoring and management
PAs can be established by:
Government action, usually at a national level, but often on regional or local levels Land purchases and easements by private individuals and conservation organizations Actions of Indigenous Peoples and traditional societies Development of biological field stations (which combine biodiversity protection and research with conservation education) by universities and other research organizations
Habitat corridors connecting protected areas may allow species dispersal to take place and may be particularly important in maintaining known migration routes.
Habitat corridors connecting protected areas may allow species dispersal to take place and may be particularly important in maintaining known migration routes.
IUCN Protected Area Designations:
Ia. Strict nature reserves Ib. Wilderness area II. National Park III. Natural monument or feature IV. Habitat/species management area V. Protected landscape/seascape (multi-management PAs) VI. Protected areas with sustainable use of natural resources (multi-management PAs)
To truly understand a species, scientists must monitor populations repeatedly over time. Monitoring plays an important role in conservation biology for several reasons:
Identifying when populations may be in trouble Determining response to conservation efforts Measuring the health of a system Providing a witness
In many parts of the world, areas with high biodiversity are inhabited by Indigenous Peoples with long-standing systems for resource protection and use. People with traditional knowledge are critical to conservation efforts in those area
In many parts of the world, areas with high biodiversity are inhabited by Indigenous Peoples with long-standing systems for resource protection and use. People with traditional knowledge are critical to conservation efforts in those area
Data deficient (DD) definition
Inadequate information exists to determine the risk of extinction for the species.
Lake restorations help to improve water quality and restore the original species composition and community structure. Ecological restoration is an important and growing tool for conservation, but the protection of existing biodiversity remains the first priority.
Lake restorations help to improve water quality and restore the original species composition and community structure. Ecological restoration is an important and growing tool for conservation, but the protection of existing biodiversity remains the first priority.
Legal efforts are made to protect biodiversity at the local, regional, and national levels and to regulate activities affecting both private and public lands. Governments and private land trusts buy land for conservation purposes or acquire conservation easements and development rights for future protection. Laws can limit pollution, regulate or ban certain types of development, and set rules for hunting and other activities—all with the aim of preserving biodiversity and protecting human health.
Legal efforts are made to protect biodiversity at the local, regional, and national levels and to regulate activities affecting both private and public lands. Governments and private land trusts buy land for conservation purposes or acquire conservation easements and development rights for future protection. Laws can limit pollution, regulate or ban certain types of development, and set rules for hunting and other activities—all with the aim of preserving biodiversity and protecting human health.
Management might involve zoning to establish areas where certain activities are allowed or prohibited. Managing interactions with local people is critical to the success of protected areas and should be part of a management plan.
Management might involve zoning to establish areas where certain activities are allowed or prohibited. Managing interactions with local people is critical to the success of protected areas and should be part of a management plan.
adaptive management
Managers must continually assess the information they gain from monitoring and adjust park management practices in an adaptive manner to achieve their conservation objectives, a process sometimes referred to as adaptive management
Many endangered species and unique ecosystems are found partly or entirely on unprotected lands. Consequently, the conservation of biodiversity in these places must be considered.
Many endangered species and unique ecosystems are found partly or entirely on unprotected lands. Consequently, the conservation of biodiversity in these places must be considered.
Land types not contained within traditional PAs but important for biodiversity:
Military land Unprotected ecosystems Forests Grasslands Unprotected waters Land undesirable to humans Private land
Decline in Biodiversity within PAs caused by:
Most PAs are too small to protect viable, long-term populations of many species, especially large animals and migratory species. Many species are attracted to resources available outside PAs. For example, it is not uncommon for primate species to feed on nutrient-rich crops in villages that are adjacent to PAs in which they live. Many species migrate between PAs seasonally to avoid freezing temperatures or other climate extremes or to access mates, water, food, and other resources.
4 main approaches that define outcomes when considering the restoration of biological communities and ecosystems:
No action/passive restoration Rehabilitation Partial restoration Complete restoration
focal species definition
One of a group of species selected as a priority for conservation efforts, chosen because its ecological requirements differ from those of other species in the group, thereby helping to ensure that as many different species as possible receive protection.
One of the most important mechanisms for measuring progress on inter- national conservation is the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, established at the Convention on Biological Diversity.
One of the most important mechanisms for measuring progress on inter- national conservation is the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, established at the Convention on Biological Diversity.
indicator species definition
One type of focal species is an indicator species, a species that is associated with an endangered biological community or set of unique ecosystem processes. e.g., the endangered northern spotted owl is a forest indicator species in the Pacific Northwest of the United States
Challenges to PA management
Poaching Trophy hunting Human-animal conflict Degradation Multiple-use areas can suffer effects of mining, cattle grazing, etc. Climate change Funding and personnel
what's primary literature
Primary literature presents the results from original research, which is usually published in the form of a peer-reviewed article but may also be found in the other types of information It is written by the person or persons who collected and analyzed the data; they are often experts in their subjects.
protected areas are established to:
Protected areas are often established to protect individual species of special concern, such as rare species, endangered species, keystone species, and culturally significant species.
degazettement
Protected areas can be reduced in size by the government, be opened up for exploitation, or even have their protected status removed (known as degazettement)
Protected areas often must be actively managed in order to maintain their biodiversity. Monitoring provides information that is needed to evaluate whether management activities are achieving their intended objectives or need to be adjusted.
Protected areas often must be actively managed in order to maintain their biodiversity. Monitoring provides information that is needed to evaluate whether management activities are achieving their intended objectives or need to be adjusted.
Protecting habitat is the most effective method of preserving biodiversity. Almost 15% of the Earth's land surface and freshwater and more than 7% of the global ocean is now protected; most of the increases in protected area are currently marine.
Protecting habitat is the most effective method of preserving biodiversity. Almost 15% of the Earth's land surface and freshwater and more than 7% of the global ocean is now protected; most of the increases in protected area are currently marine.
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+)
REDD+ rewards poorer nations for preserving forests by paying them for the carbon that is stored in their forests.
Rapid assessment programs
Rapid assessment programs - RAPs involve mapping vegetation, making lists of species, checking for species of special concern, estimating the total number of species, and looking out for new species and features of special interest. Used to make determine park boundaries
Red List Index demonstrates:
Red List Index, which demonstrates that the conservation status of certain animal groups has continued to decline since 1988, with particularly sharp declines for corals and cycads
Red lists are:
Red lists - detailed lists of endangered species by group and by country
reference sites
Reference sites are central to the very concept of restoration; they act as comparison sites, providing explicit restoration goals and allowing for quantitative measures of the project's success
Additional (Regional list):
Regionally extinct (RE) The species no longer exists within the country or region but is extant in other parts of the world. Not applicable (NA) The species is not eligible for the regional Red List because, for example, it is not within its natural range in the region (i.e., it has been introduced) or because it is only a rare migrant to the region.
Conservation biologists often start by considering the four Rs:
Representation - Protected areas should contain as many features of biodiversity (species, populations, habitats, etc.) as possible. Resiliency - Protected areas must be large enough to maintain all aspects of biodiversity in a healthy condition for the foreseeable future, including as climate conditions change. Redundancy - Protected areas must include enough examples of each aspect of biodiversity to ensure its long-term existence in the face of future uncertainties. Reality - There must be sufficient funds and political will not only to acquire and protect lands but also to regulate and manage the protected areas.
Soft release definition, value, example
Some animal species may require special care and assistance immediately after release to increase their survival prospects. Value: ability to study the behavior of captive-bred animals to ensure that they will be able to survive in the wild e.g., Iberian lynxes released in Portugal in 2015
International cooperation is an absolute requirement for several reasons:
Species migrate across international borders. International trade in biological products is commonplace. Biodiversity provides internationally important benefits. Many environmental pollution problems that threaten ecosystems are international in scope.
Sustainable development is defined as economic development that satisfies the present and future needs of human society while minimizing its impact on biodiversity. Achieving sustainable development is a challenge for conservation biology and society.
Sustainable development is defined as economic development that satisfies the present and future needs of human society while minimizing its impact on biodiversity. Achieving sustainable development is a challenge for conservation biology and society.
Point of IUCN system
The IUCN system has been used to identify Red Lists of threatened species and to determine whether species are responding to conservation efforts.
four major groundbreaking documents that shape policy today:
The Rio Declaration The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) developed a list of goals to achieve sustainability, called the Aichi Biodiversity Targets - main goal was to slow or stop the loss of biodiversity by reducing the impact of human activities. Agenda 21
complete restoration
The area is completely restored to its original species composition and structure
difficulty implementing recovery plans
The difficulty of implementing recovery plans for so many species is often not primarily biological but, rather, political, administrative, and ultimately financial.
online literature
The internet provides ever-increasing access to databases, websites, electronic bulletin boards, news articles, specialized discussion groups, and other sources that can be valuable when searching for information about a particular species or ecosystem
ESA vs IUCN
The language and categories used by the ESA are different from those in the IUCN or NatureServe systems. Many species are listed under the ESA only when they have fewer than 100 individuals remaining, making recovery difficult e.g., Bald eagle is example of endangered species was removed from ES list as population recovered
Official Development Assistance (ODA)
The most important part of foreign aid, referring to foreign aid that is offered by countries or by international organizations composed of a number of countries (it does not include aid offered by non-governmental organizations).
Co-management
The partnership of traditional people, government agencies, and conservation organizations working together has been termed co-management
Extinct (EX) definition
The species (or other taxon, such as subspecies or variety) is no longer known to exist.
Extinct in the wild (EW) definition
The species exists only in cultivation, in captivity, or as a naturalized population well outside its original range
Vulnerable (VU) definition
The species has a high risk of extinction in the wild, according to any of the criteria A-E.
Endangered (EN) definition
The species has a very high risk of extinction in the wild, according to any of the criteria A-E.
Critically endangered (CR) definition
The species has an extremely high risk of going extinct in the wild, according to any of the criteria A-E
Not evaluated (NE) definition
The species has not yet been evaluated against the Red List criteria.
Near threatened (NT) definition
The species is close to qualifying for a threatened category but is not currently considered threatened.
Least concerned (LC) definition
The species is not considered near threatened or threatened. (Widespread and abundant species are included in this category.)
Multi-management PAs significant because:
They are often much larger in area than other categories of protected areas. They may contain many or even most of their original species. They often adjoin or surround other protected areas. They are more likely to benefit local people than strictly protected areas, and therefore they are more likely to earn local support.
"One Plan Approach"
This is the idea that all in situ and ex situ management and conservation activities for a given species or population should be integrated, involving all responsible parties and resulting in a clear, single plan.
IUCN Guidelines for Reintroductions and Other Conservation Translocations
Threats must be understood and addressed The ecology of the species must be sufficiently understood. Genetics of the species and released individuals must be sufficiently under- stood There must be enough viable habitat available to support a population Ecological risks must be assessed and accounted for Human concerns must be addressed In the event of a failure, it must be possible to remove or destroy all offspring of the released individuals
GIS
To evaluate where new protected areas should be established, as well as where gaps exist, geographic information system (GIS) mapping is a vital tool GIS can help researchers integrate the wealth of data on the natural environment with information on species distributions GIS is an effective tool for gap analysis. It uses a wide variety of information to pinpoint critical areas and species that are priorities for protection
How IUCN assigned categories for species?
Using habitat loss as a criterion in assigning categories is particularly useful for many species that are poorly known biologically, because species can be listed as threatened if their habitat is being destroyed even if scientists know little else about them. In practice, a species is most commonly assigned to an IUCN category based on the area it occupies, the number of mature individuals it has, or the rate of decline of the habitat or population; the probability of extinction is least commonly used.
Important themes in ecosystem management include the following:
Using the best science available to develop a coordinated plan for the area that is sustainable Ensuring viable populations of all species, representative examples of all biological communities and successional stages, and healthy ecosystem functions Seeking and understanding connections between all levels and scales in the ecosystem hierarchy Monitoring significant components of the ecosystem (numbers of individuals of significant species, vegetation cover, water quality, etc.), gathering the needed data, and then using the results to adjust management in an adaptive manner—i.e., adaptive management
The research on extinction rates of populations in large parks has three practical implications:
When a new park is being established, it should generally be made as large as possible in order to preserve as many species as possible, contain large populations of each species, and provide a diversity of habitats and natural resources. Keystone resources should be included, in addition to habitat features that promote biodiversity, such as elevational gradients When possible, land adjacent to protected areas should be acquired to reduce external threats to existing parks and maintain buffer zones. For example, terrestrial habitats adjacent to wetlands are often needed by semiaquatic species such as snakes and turtles. Moreover, protecting natural ecological units, such as entire watersheds or mountains, is often the best means to reduce external threats. The effects of climate change, invasive species, and other threats are altering ecosystems within existing protected areas. These changes can reduce the area of habitat available for a species and lead to declines in population size and increased probability of extinction. These changes emphasize the need for preserving corridors or otherwise connecting protected areas to facilitate the dispersal of species among them
extinction debt definition
When a population has more individuals than predicted based on current levels of habitat loss or degradation, it is called extinction debt
Wilderness approach
Wilderness approach - Large blocks of land that have been minimally affected by human activity, have a low human population density, and are not likely to be developed in the near future that are used as a reference for restoration
Protected area
a clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated, and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values.
conservation banking
a landowner deliberately preserves an endangered species or a protected habitat type, such as wetlands, or even restores degraded habitat and creates new habitat. A conservation bank is like a financial bank in that it is intended to be a stable protector, but instead of money, it protects natural resource values.
payments for ecosystem services (PES)
a landowner is paid for providing specific conservation services
limited development / conservation development
a landowner, a property developer, and a government agency and/or conservation organization reach a compromise that allows part of the land to be commercially developed while the remainder is protected by a conservation easement.
novel ecosystems
a mixture of native and nonnative species coexisting in a community unlike the original or reference site
ecological succession
a predictable, gradual, and progressive change in species over time
legal title
a right to ownership that is recognized by the government
arboretum
a specialized botanical garden focusing on trees and other woody plants Botanical gardens have living collections and seed banks that provide ex situ protection and knowledge of endangered and economically important plants
ecosystem management
a system of large-scale management involving multiple stakeholders, the primary goal of which is preserving ecosystem components and processes for the long term while still satisfying the current needs of society Ecosystem management links private and public landowners, businesses, and conservation organizations in a planning framework that facilitates acting together on a large scale
Rewilding
a term introduced by Michael Soulé in the mid-1990s to describe the reintroduction of top carnivores in order to regulate the system from the top down Oostvaardersplassen - A famous and controversial attempt at rewilding
conservation easements
agreements not to develop land
community- based conservation (CBC)
aligning ecological, economic, and social goals
Debt-for-nature swap
an NGO in the developed world (such as Conservation International) buys up the debts of a developing country; the NGO agrees to forgive the debt in exchange for the country's carrying out a conservation activity.
Head-starting definition and example
an approach in which animals are raised in captivity during their vulnerable young stages and then released into the wild. e.g., sea turtle hatchlings
Rehibilitation
applies if some of the original ecosystem function is obtained without recovering most of the original species. May not be native species.
Experimental essential populations
are regarded by the US Endangered Species Act as critical to the survival of the species, and they are as rigidly protected as naturally occurring populations.
artificial incubation & insemination
artificial incubation of eggs under ideal hatching conditions artificial insemination - when adults do not show interest in mating or are living in different locations
In-situ conservation
best strategy for the long-term protection of biodiversity is the preservation of biological communities and populations
cross-fostering
common species raise the offspring of rare species
The "4 Cs". Environmental aid will be effective only if these conditions are met:
concern, contracts, capacity, and causes. Both donors and recipients genuinely want to solve the problems. Mutually satisfactory and enforceable contracts for the project can be agreed on. There is the capacity to undertake the project in terms of institutions, personnel, and infrastructure. The causes of the problem are addressed.
"revolving funds"
conservation organizations purchase the land and then sell it to a conservation-minded owner with a conservation easement or covenant in place to protect that land in perpetuity.
Management activities can include
controlled burns, enforcement of restrictions on human use, and the maintenance of keystone resources, especially water Protected areas must be monitored to determine whether their goals are being met, and management plans may need to be adjusted based on new information from monitoring
economic growth
defined as material increases in the amount of resources used.
Sustainable development
economic development that satisfies both present and future needs for resources and employment while minimizing the impact on biodiversity and functioning ecosystems
fieldwork definition
fieldwork—observations and data collection in the natural environment.
flagship species are
flagship species, such as tigers and pandas, which capture public attention, have symbolic value, and are crucial to ecotourism.
nonpoint source pollution
general pollution from an entire landscape
To receive IUCN Green List certification, protected areas must meet a global standard based on four components:
good governance sound design and planning effective management, which together lead to successful conservation outcomes.
what's grey literature
gray literature is not printed or posted by a commercial or scientific publisher. Reports written by scientists from government fisheries and wildlife agencies, national and regional forest and park departments, and conservation organizations contain an enormous amount of information on conservation biology.
habitat conservation plans
habitat conservation plans (HCPs). HCPs are regional plans that allow development in designated areas but also protect remnants of biological communities or ecosystems that contain groups of actually or potentially endangered species.
Experimental nonessential populations
have less protection under the law; designating populations as nonessential often helps to overcome the fear of local landowners that having endangered species on their property will restrict how their land can be managed and developed
embryo transfer
implanting fertilized eggs of rare species into surrogate mothers of common species
economic development
implies improvements in the efficiency, organization, and distribution of resource use or other economic activity but not necessarily increases in resource consumption.
compensatory mitigation / biodiversity offsets
in which a new site is created or rehabilitated in compensation for a site that has been destroyed elsewhere by development
Conservation concessions
innovative approach in which conservation organizations outbid extractive industries such as logging companies, not for ownership of the land, but for the rights to use and protect it. international cooperation to protect biodiversity is a requirement for several reasons: Species migrate across international borders. International trade in biological products is commonplace. Biodiversity provides internationally important benefits. Many environmental pollution problems that threaten ecosystems are international in scope.
habitat islands
intact habitat surrounded by an unprotected matrix of inhospitable terrain
bioregional management
integrates protection with human use and often focuses on a single large ecosystem e.g., Caribbean Sea or the Great Barrier Reef of Australia
land sparing
intensive human activities, such as modern agriculture, are practiced on some of the lands while allowing the rest to remain in their natural state.
international agreements and conventions that protect biological diversity are needed because species migrate across borders, there is an international trade in biological products, the benefits of biological diversity are of international importance, and the threats to diversity are often international in scope and require international cooperation.
international agreements and conventions that protect biological diversity are needed because species migrate across borders, there is an international trade in biological products, the benefits of biological diversity are of international importance, and the threats to diversity are often international in scope and require international cooperation.
Conservation leasing
involves providing payments to private landowners who actively manage their land for biodiversity protection.
genome resource banking (GRB)
involves the freezing of purified DNA, eggs, sperm, embryos, and other tissues so that they can be used to contribute to future breeding programs, to maintain genetic diversity, and for scientific research
Behavioral ecology
is the study of an animal's behavior in the context of its environment and considers the adaptive significance of those behaviors. The establishment of new populations through reintroduction programs in no way reduces the need to protect the original populations of endangered species
national environmental fund (NEF)
is typically set up as a conservation trust fund or foundation in which a board of trustees—composed of representatives of the host government, conservation organizations, and donor agencies—allocates the annual income from an endowment to support inadequately funded government departments and nongovernment conservation organizations and activities.
Conservation easements / conservation covenants
landowners give up the right to develop, build on, or subdivide their property, typically in exchange for a sum of money, lower real estate taxes, or some other tax benefit
landscape ecology
landscape ecology, which investigates patterns within the mosaic of the physical environment, ecological communities, ecosystem processes, and human-ecosystem interactions on local and regional scales
passive restoration
letting an ecosystem recover on its own
landraces
local species that have been adapted by humans over time
land sharing
low-intensity human activities, such as traditional or organic agriculture, can coexist with some elements of biodiversity.
payments for ecosystem services (PES)
making direct payments to individual landowners and local communities that protect critical ecosystems and the services they provide
biocultural restoration
meaning that ACG staff members teach basic biology and ecology on-site to thousands of students in grades 4 through 6 from dozens of neighboring schools and also give presentations to citizen groups, all as part of the ACG core mission in what is called the Programa de Educación Biológica
metapopulation definition
metapopulation (a "population of populations") that is made up of a shifting mosaic of populations linked by some degree of migration
what's a minimum viable population (MVP)
minimum viable population (MVP) - the number of individuals necessary to ensure the long-term survival of a species the smallest population size that can be predicted to have a very high chance of persisting for the foreseeable future. Once an MVP size has been established for a species, the minimum dynamic area (MDA)—the area of suitable habitat necessary for maintaining the MVP— can be estimated
ecological resilience
natural ability for ecosystem to recover
Zoo ark & example
number of species that have gone extinct in the wild have survived because of propagation in captive colonies e.g., Franklin tree not found in wild anymore
seed banks
obtained from the wild and from cultivated plants. Provide a crucial backup to their living collections
Ex situ conservation
off-site conservation—used in place of or to complement in situ conservation can mean the difference between persistence and extinction for some species.
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
one of the most important treaties protecting species at an international level is the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species CITES has been instrumental in restricting trade in certain endangered wildlife species. Its most notable success was a global ban on the ivory trade after poaching caused severe declines in African elephant
peer reviewed definition
peer-reviewed, meaning that the content has been evaluated by others within that field ("peers") before it is approved for publication and distribution.
what's a population viability analysis (PVA)
population viability analysis (PVA)- mathematical model that estimates the ability of a population to persist in the future With a PVA, hundreds or thousands of simulations of individual populations can be run using this random variation, allowing us to determine the probability of population extinction within a certain period of time Some researchers argue that PVA should be used in the establishment of recovery criteria, predetermined thresholds that signal that an endangered species can be removed from protection under the Endangered Species Act
what's Endangered Species Act
principal conservation law protecting species is the Endangered Species Act (ESA)
Land trusts
private conservation organizations that purchase and protect land. Conservation easements and limited development agreements are also used by land trusts to increase the amount of land under protection
Another way in which the prioritization of species for conservation can be determined is by evaluating the degree to which it is "DUE": distinctive, utilitarian, and endangered. What's DUE?
1. Distinctiveness (or irreplaceability) A species is often given high conservation value if it is taxonomically distinctive—that is, it is the only species in its genus or family. Similarly, a population of a species having unusual genetic characteristics that distinguish it from other populations of the species might be a high priority for conservation. An ecosystem composed primarily of rare endemic species or with other unusual attributes (small area, scenic value, unique geological features) is given a high priority for conservation. 2. Utility Species that have present or potential value to people, such as wild relatives of wheat, are given high conservation priority. Species with major cultural significance, such as tigers in India and the bald eagle in the United States, are also given high priority. 3. Endangerment (or vulnerability) Species in danger of extinction are of greater concern than species that are not; thus, the whooping crane, with only about 249 individuals, requires more protection than the sandhill crane (Grus canadensis), with approximately 650,000 individuals (Dubovsky 2020).
census definition
A census is a count of the number of individuals present in a population.
introduction program definition and example
A conservation introduction program involves moving captive-bred or wild-collected animals or plants to areas suitable for the species outside their historical range. e.g., New Zealand kakapo introduced to offshore islands because non-native predators decimated their population on the mainland
Mitigation and types
proposals are made by developers or government departments to compensate for habitat damage or eradication of endangered populations that happens as a result of development projects by requiring the creation of new habitat or the establishment of new populations adjustments to the development plan to reduce the extent of damage establishment of new populations and habitat as compensation for what is being destroyed enhancement of populations and habitat that remain after development.
extractive reserve
protected area in which sustainable extraction of certain natural products is allowed
Important considerations in management plans include:
protecting biodiversity maintaining ecosystem services and health preserving historical landscapes providing resources and experiences of value to local inhabitants and visitors
what's secondary literature
secondary literature reports the findings of others, often in a literature review or a meta-analysis e.g., textbook
Difficulty enforcing CITES
shipments of both living and Sinauer Associates/OUP preserved plants and animals are often mislabeled, due to either ignorance of species names or deliberate attempts to avoid the restrictions of the treaty sometimes countries fail to enforce the restrictions of the treaty because of corruption or a lack of trained staff. some international borders are remote, rugged, and difficult to monitor, such as that between Laos and Vietnam
SLOSS definition and debate
single large or several small Large reserves are generally better able to maintain many species because they support larger population sizes and a greater variety of habitats. However, small reserves are important in protecting particular species and ecosystems
source population definition
source populations (core populations) with fairly stable numbers and several sink populations (satellite populations) that fluctuate in size with arrivals of immigrants.
ecosystem approach
A number of conservationists have argued that rather than targeting species, ecosystems and the biological communities they contain should be targeted for conservation
zoning
A possible way to deal with conflicting demands on a protected area is zoning, which considers the overall management objectives for a park and sets aside designated areas that permit or give priority to certain activities. Zoning allows the separation of mutually incompatible activities. MPAs are often zoned with no-fishing areas where fish and other marine organisms can recover from harvesting
habitat corridors
strips of protected land running between the reserves can allow plants and animals to disperse from one reserve to another, facilitating gene flow and the colonization of suitable sites
Paris Agreement
strongest international agreement on climate change yet, requiring action from all 191 signatory nations.
multiple-use habitat
that is, they are managed to provide a variety of goods and services. involves the development of innovative ways to reconcile competing claims on land use, such as logging, mining, ranching, species conservation, and tourism
reinforcement program definition
A reinforcement program involves releasing individuals into an existing population to increase its size and/or gene pool to adjust age or sex structures; this approach is also referred to as restocking or augmentation. These released individuals may be raised in captivity or may be wild individuals collected elsewhere.
reintroduction program definition and example
A reintroduction program involves releasing captive-bred or wild- collected individuals at an ecologically suitable site within their historical range where the species no longer occurs e.g., grey wolf in Yellowstone National Park
representative site definition
A representative site includes the species and environmental conditions characteristic of the ecosystem.
survey definition and types
A survey of a population involves using a repeatable sampling method to estimate the abundance or density of a population or species in a part of a community. Survey methods are used when a population is very large or its range is extensive, making a direct measure of all individuals impossible Transects - lines, often designated with measuring tape or string, along which biological data is collected Camera traps
the Living Planet Index follows:
the Living Planet Index, follows population sizes for more than 22,000 vertebrate species; this index has shown an average decline of 68% in species abundances from 1970 to 2016
cultural eutrophication
the accumulation of excess nutrients in the water caused by human activity
Earth Summit or the Rio Summit
the conference brought together representatives from 178 countries. Their purpose was to discuss ways of combining increased protection of the environment with sustainable economic development in less-wealthy countries
conservation translocations definition and value
the deliberate placement of organisms to achieve "measurable conservation benefit at the levels of a population, species, or ecosystems Establishing new populations of endangered species can benefit the species itself, other species, and the ecosystem. However, such programs must identify and eliminate the factors that led to the original population's decline.
integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs)
the economic needs of local people are included in conservation management plans, to the benefit of both the people and the reserves
the hotspot approach
the hotspot approach - protecting designated hotspots that have great biological diversity and high levels of endemism and that are under immediate threat of species extinctions and habitat destruction Certain taxa can be used as biodiversity indicators to highlight new areas where concentrations of species can be protected. e.g.,a site with a high diversity of flowering plants often, but not always, will also have a high diversity of mosses, spiders, fungi, and other organisms.
reconciliation ecology
the need to find ways to promote biodiversity in human-dominated landscapes This generally involves increasing environmental complexity, such as creating habitat in urban settings by enhancing parks or planting green roofs
Ecocolonialism
the practice by some governments and conservation organizations of disregarding the traditional rights and practices of local people in order to establish new conservation areas
Ecological restoration
the process of assisting or accelerating the recovery of degraded, damaged or destroyed ecosystems
Ecosystem restoration
the process of halting and reversing degradation, resulting in improved ecosystem services and recovered biodiversity.
Restoration ecology
the science of restoration—the research and scientific study of restored populations, communities, and ecosystems.
Bioremediation
the use of an organism to clean up pollutants, such as the use of prokaryotes to break down the oil in an oil spill or wetland plants to take up agricultural runoff to clean the water
Biological control / biocontrol
the use of one type of organism, such as an insect, to manage another, undesirable, species, such as an invasive plant e.g., tamarisk leaf beetle
studbooks
these are records of births, deaths, parentage, source (e.g. whether acquired from the wild), and any current transfers of individuals for each species.
biosphere reserves
zoning approach, termed biosphere reserves, integrates traditional land use patterns (such as farming, grazing, and managing forests), research, protection of the natural environment, and sometimes tourism at a single location Often have settlement and scenic landscapes
Adequate staffing and funding are necessary for park management.
Adequate staffing and funding are necessary for park management.
Although the number of species living within a protected area is an important indicator of the area's potential to protect biodiversity, protected areas need to maintain healthy ecosystems and viable populations of important species
Although the number of species living within a protected area is an important indicator of the area's potential to protect biodiversity, protected areas need to maintain healthy ecosystems and viable populations of important species
Hard release
Animals can also be released without assistance such as food supplementation
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals
Another key treaty is the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, often referred to as the Bonn Convention, which focuses primarily on bird species.
Ex situ address conservation challenges in at least five different ways:
As an opportunity for research By addressing threats By offsetting impacts of stochastic demographic and/or environmental impacts As a way of "buying time" for populations facing significant decline By restoring populations after threats have been mitigated
partial restoration
At least some of the ecosystem functions and some of the original, dominant species are restored.
De-extinction methods:
Back-breeding Cloning Genomic reconstruction
Conservation biologists are developing guidelines for designing protected areas: the areas should be large whenever possible, they should not be fragmented, and managers should create networks of conservation areas for maximum protection.
Conservation biologists are developing guidelines for designing protected areas: the areas should be large whenever possible, they should not be fragmented, and managers should create networks of conservation areas for maximum protection.
Conservation groups, governments in developed countries, and the World Bank provide funding to protect biodiversity, especially in developing countries. National environmental funds and debt-for-nature swaps are also used to fund conservation activities. However, additional funding is still needed to address both biodiversity and sustainable development needs.
Conservation groups, governments in developed countries, and the World Bank provide funding to protect biodiversity, especially in developing countries. National environmental funds and debt-for-nature swaps are also used to fund conservation activities. However, additional funding is still needed to address both biodiversity and sustainable development needs.
important international agreements that protect species include the following:
Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, which established the International Whaling Commission International Convention for the Protection of Birds, and the Benelux (Belgium/Netherlands/Luxembourg) Convention Concerning Hunting and the Protection of Birds Convention for the Conservation and Management of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean Additional agreements protecting specific groups of animals, such as prawns, lobsters, crabs, fur seals, Antarctic seals, salmon, and vicuña